Division and cooperation of labor: concepts, types and forms. The division of labor is the separation of different types of activities Separation of various types of work within the organization

Division of labor, its forms and efficiency criteria.

Labor cooperation.

Directions for improving the division and cooperation of labor.

The organization of labor at the enterprise begins with its division, which, as an element of the organization of labor, is the separation of the types of activities of employees, the establishment of functions, duties, scope for the employees of each of them, as well as for their groups that form different divisions.

The division of labor according to the form of manifestation is divided into 2 types:

The first type is separation social labor for various branches of labor;

The second type is the division of labor in the production of a commodity.

Each of the types includes types of division of labor. The first type includes 2 types: general and particular, the second type - a single division of labor.

The general division of labor is the process of segregation of various types labor activity within the framework of the whole society, i.e. division of labor between different spheres of activity and production.

Private division of labor is the process of separating various types of labor activity both by industry, agriculture, and within them - by individual enterprises.

The unit division of labor means the separation of various types of work within the organization, within certain structural divisions, as well as the distribution of work between individual workers.

Depending on the type and variety of work, the division of labor is distinguished: functional, professional, technological and qualification. In addition, the division of labor occurs on a "territorial" basis between large and between small units, as well as within units. All of these forms of separation coexist, i.e. are present at the same time.

The functional division of labor involves the division of personnel into functionally homogeneous groups, each of which is distinguished by its role in the implementation of the production process or activity. First of all, employees, workers, MOS, students, and guards stand out. With the functional division of labor, one of the problems is to justify the expediency of combining the functions of workers from different functional groups, for example, main and auxiliary workers. It is also necessary here to address the issues of substantiating the level of centralization and specialization of work for individual functional groups.

Professional division consists in the division of workers according to professions and specialties. A profession is understood as the type of activity (occupation) of a person who owns certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of vocational training. A specialty is a kind of profession, its narrower part, the specialization of an employee within the profession. In the system of higher vocational education State educational standards distinguish the following professional gradations: qualification, specialty and specialization.

The technological division of labor involves the placement of workers in stages, phases, types of work and production operations, depending on the production technology, on the content and features of the work. Here there are four types of division of labor: substantive, detailed, operational and by type of work.

In the substantive division of labor, the performer is assigned the performance of work related to the manufacture of the finished product.

The detailed division of labor is more common. It consists in assigning to the production workers the finished part of the product - the part - to the production worker.

The most common form of technological division of labor is operational division, when an employee performs only one or a few technological operations. The operational division of labor is associated with the emergence of a rather complex contradiction between labor productivity and its content. Historically, the process of development of material production proceeded from universal labor to specialized labor. These types of work have their positive and negative sides. Universal labor requires the worker to have versatile skills, equal to skill in performing various works. This is, as a rule, a work that is meaningful, interesting, and rich in creative elements. With all these positive qualities, such work is not very productive. As production became more complex, to ensure the growth of labor productivity, more and more specialization was required, an ever narrower division of labor.

Advantages of specialized labor over universal labor:

you can more successfully select a performer to perform work that requires certain individual qualities from him.

the term for preparing an employee to perform a limited range of duties is reduced.

the worker achieves mastery, the necessary speed and accuracy of work faster.

prerequisites are being created for more complete mechanization and automation of labor.

the best opportunities are created to improve the organization of the workplace, equipping it with specialized equipment and tools.

All this contributes to the growth of labor productivity, but at the same time the content of labor decreases, the worker becomes, as it were, an appendage of the machine, one of its parts. The transition of the rational border of specialization leads to the fact that the growth of labor productivity stops due to the accumulation negative points highly specialized labor: interest in work disappears, staff turnover increases, etc.

Technological division of labor by type of work - when none of the listed types of technological division is suitable, for example, welding, painting.

The qualification division of labor is the distribution of work depending on their complexity among workers of different qualification groups. The level of qualification of workers is established on the basis of the assignment of qualification categories to them. The first category corresponds to the lowest level of qualification.

To address issues of division of labor, the concepts of "division boundaries" and "division level" are used.

The boundaries of division are the lower and upper limits, below and above which, respectively, the division of labor is unacceptable.

The level of division is an accepted calculated or actually achieved value characterizing the state of the division of labor.

There are the following boundaries of the division of labor: technical, economic, psycho-physiological and social.

The lower technical boundary of the division of labor will be a production operation consisting of one labor reception, the upper technical boundary of the division of labor will be the manufacture of the entire product at one workplace.

The lower economic boundary of the division of labor will be such a division of the labor process, when the reduction in the cost of working time to perform an operation due to the deepening of specialization will equalize, and then begin to overlap with the increase in the time spent on transporting the object of labor from one workplace to another. The upper economic limit is determined by the duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of the entire product at one workplace.

The psychophysiological boundaries of the division of labor are determined by the magnitude of the physical and neuropsychic stress on the worker during the working day. For physical activity, the lower limit is energy consumption in the amount of 2.5 - 3 kcal / min, the upper limit is 4.5 - 5 kcal / min.

The social boundaries of the division of labor are determined by the level of monotony of labor and staff turnover, the attitude of workers to work, and the state of interpersonal relations. The monotony of labor is regulated by the duration of repeated homogeneous operations during the working day. The boundary value is the duration of such operations at least 30 seconds, the frequency of repetition of heterogeneous elements of the operation should be at least five in 30 seconds.

If the boundaries of the division of labor indicate the limits of acceptable decisions that should guide the organizers of labor and production in this area, then for a specific production situation it is important to find the best option, that is, the optimal level of division of labor, which is calculated based on the use of economic, psychophysiological and social criteria.

The economic criteria for the division of labor are: the cost of working time and material costs for the performance of work, the degree of use of the qualifications of workers, the duration of the production cycle. The level of labor productivity, production costs, profit of the enterprise. The economic direction of improving the division of labor is to achieve savings in labor and material costs, which, in turn, leads to a reduction in production costs and an increase in the profit of the enterprise.

Psychophysiological criteria for the division of labor are: indicators of human performance, which depends on sanitary and hygienic working conditions, labor intensity, on the distribution of physical loads on different organs and systems of a person, on the magnitude of the combination of physical loads with mental ones. In the division of labor, the variant of labor is chosen which ensures the maximum working capacity of a person and in the best way ensures the health of the worker.

The social criteria for the division of labor are the stability of the team, low staff turnover, high labor discipline, satisfaction with the content and working conditions, etc.

Establishment optimal level the division of labor with such a large number of different criteria is a rather difficult task. Here it is important to decide where to start, which groups of criteria to give preference to. Most noteworthy is the experience of optimizing the division of labor, when calculations begin with the use of social, then psychophysiological, and only then economic criteria.

Question number 2.

Under the cooperation of labor understand the system of production relationship of workers in the implementation of the labor process and their interaction in the unit and at the enterprise. The cooperation of labor is inextricably linked with its division. The arrangement of workers should be carried out in such a way as to achieve their expedient interaction by rationalizing the routes for moving objects of labor, saving labor costs, and reducing the duration of the production cycle.

The scale of cooperation depends on:

The depth of the division of labor - the deeper the division of labor, the wider its cooperation;

the level of technology;

existing technology;

Organizational type of production;

Forms of division of labor;

Forms of organization of production.

The forms of labor cooperation are similar in name to the forms of its division. Firstly, cooperation is carried out on a territorial basis: intershop, intrashop or intersectoral, intrasectoral or interbrigade, intra-brigade cooperation, of course, if the enterprise is divided into shops, shops - into sections, sections - into brigades. If the enterprise or institution has a different structural division, then the forms of division of labor will be named in accordance with it.

Intershop cooperation establishes interaction between shops of different functional or technological profile.

In addition to the territorial feature, cooperation is established according to the specific feature. Here, the forms of cooperation are distinguished: functional, professional, technological and qualification. In turn, within the framework of technological cooperation, cooperation is distinguished by substantive, detailed, operational, and by type of work.

It is important to deal professionally and competently with the establishment of rational forms of division and cooperation of labor. the improvement of these forms is achieved by combining professions and positions, expanding work areas, using multi-machine or multi-unit service. The development of collective forms of organization and stimulation of labor. great potential has the use of methods based on the use of psychophysiological features of people's perception of a particular production environment, taking into account the socio-psychological factors of the production environment, such as the age and sex composition of the team, value orientations of workers, the totality of their needs, interests, preferences, behavioral motives.

Question number 3.

The main directions for improving the division and cooperation of labor:

The combination of professions is such a form of organizing the work of an employee when he work time performs, along with work in the main profession, also work in one or more professions or specialties.

The possibility and economic feasibility of combining professions is determined by the following prerequisites and conditions:

The presence of unused working time for employees;

Mismatch of combined works in time;

Technological and functional commonality of the combined works, their close interconnection with each other, territorial proximity;

The absence of a negative impact of combined work on the accuracy and quality of their performance;

Theoretical and practical readiness of the employee to combine work.

2. The combination of functions is the performance, along with the duties of the main profession, of certain functions that were previously performed by employees of other professions. Keeping the profile of his work, the employee partially performs the work of another employee.

The combination of professions and functions should not be confused with part-time work. Part-time work is work outside of school hours, i.e. after the end of the main work.

The combination of professions and functions is developing in the following areas:

A) the combination of heterogeneous professions, predetermined by the use of a multidisciplinary technological equipment;

B) combining the main work with the maintenance of their equipment;

C) combining the main work with the economic maintenance of the workplace;

D) the combination of heterogeneous, but interrelated works of an auxiliary nature;

E) consolidation of excessively fragmented operations, increasing the diversity and content of labor.

The volume of work in a combined profession should, as a rule, be less than in the main job;

The combination should ensure normal (no more than the length of the working day in one shift) employment of the employee;

The expansion of the combination of professions should be limited by the level of fatigue of the employee, not exceeding physiological norms;

Between the volume and the number of combined works, the requirement should be observed: the greater the volume of combined works, the less the number of combinations should be;

The sum of the volumes of combined work, taking into account the time to move from one workplace to another and breaks for rest and personal needs, should be equal to or less than the duration of the work shift, i.e.

Where R i - the amount of work;

n is the number of combined jobs;

T lane - the time of breaks for rest, personal needs and for transitions from one place of work to another when combining professions, min .;

T cm - shift duration, min.

The possibility of involving an employee in combining professions can be characterized by the coefficient K joint:

, where T sv - time free from work in the main profession, min.

3. Expansion of service areas - here there is a combination of work within the same profession. By this measure, it is possible to achieve an improvement in the use of working time, the release of workers whose working day is not fully loaded, and an increase in the content of labor. often a multi-machine service system is used here, the essence of which is that one or a group of workers simultaneously service several machines.

4. Collective forms of labor organization, in particular, the brigade form of organization and stimulation of labor. In specially organized brigades, conditions are created for changing labor by expanding the production profile of workers and moving them within the brigade from one workplace to another. Such a movement makes it possible to overcome the monotony of labor, increases its diversity and content, has a beneficial effect on such psychophysiological characteristics of personnel as working capacity, fatigue, health, improves the economic results of labor, and increases its productivity.

The international division of labor, in comparison with the territorial division of labor, has some fundamental differences. The formation of the specialization of the country's economy in this case, of course, is subject to the action of the law of comparative advantage, according to this law, which is one of the fundamental laws of economic theory, each country has a comparative advantage in the production of any product or service and can benefit by trading them or exchanging them for other goods or services.

The division of labor, the social division of labor is an objective process of dismemberment of individual types of labor, their simultaneous coexistence in social production.

The division of labor is a process in which different types of processing products are separated from each other, creating more and more new industries and industries.

However, this definition will be incomplete if some features of this phenomenon are not shown.

First, the division of labor is a historical category. This means that it is in constant motion, constantly changing, which reflects a certain level of development of the productive forces. Next, the historical stages in the development of the division of labor will be shown.

Secondly, the division of labor is not limited to microeconomic phenomena - within the same enterprise. This is a certain system of social labor, which is formed as a result of the qualitative differentiation of labor activity in the process of development of society.

Thirdly, the division of labor is the cause of the emergence of commodity production. However, it becomes a cause only when the division of labor occurs simultaneously with the alienation of producers. And this means that the producers, among whom there has been a division of labor, act as separate owners. limited to a certain kind production activities, they are forced to exchange their product for other products in order to satisfy their needs. Only in this way can they satisfy their needs. Exchange between different owners takes the form of commodity exchange.

The category of labor productivity reflects the general state of social labor, its content, and character in various socioeconomic formations. There is an international division of labor (between individual states) and a division of labor within a country (territorial and sectoral). There are also general, partial and individual division of labor.

Division of labor:

1. international division of labor: the concentration of production of certain types of goods in those countries where their production is economically beneficial due to geographical location, climate and the availability of natural resources, as well as labor and capital resources; The international division of labor arises between countries that are protected by their state sovereignty.
2. differentiation, specialization of labor activity. With the vertical division of labor, there is a distribution by levels, for example, production and enterprise management are distinguished. With the horizontal division of labor, types of work are distributed within the same level, for example, manufacturing, processing of product parts and assembly of products from these parts are distinguished.

International division of labor

The international division of labor is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products.

The international division of labor is based on differences between countries in natural and climatic conditions, geographical location, raw materials and energy sources.

Economic systems are based on the division of labor, i.e. on the relative differentiation of activities. To some extent, the division of labor exists at all levels: from the global economy to the workplace. The differentiation of types of activity in the country's economy is carried out by groups of industries: industry, agriculture, construction, etc. Further differentiation occurs by individual industries and sub-sectors.

The main types of division of labor in the enterprise are: functional, technological and subject.

According to the functions performed, four main groups are usually distinguished: managers, specialists, employees, workers.

The technological division of labor is due to the introduction of stages technological process and types of work. In accordance with the technology, workshops and sections of the enterprise can be created. The subject division of labor involves the specialization of production units and employees for the manufacture of certain types of products (products, assemblies, parts).

Social division of labor

The social division of labor is the separation of various types of labor activity. There are two main types of division of labor - within society and within the enterprise. The division of labor within society acts as a general - according to the types of production (industry, agriculture) and private - the division of the types of production into types and subspecies (mining and manufacturing, crop production and animal husbandry). In addition, there is a territorial division of labor - by territorial economic regions.

The division of labor within enterprises is called single. The condition for the social division of labor is the growth of the productive forces of society. In turn, the social division of labor serves as a factor in the development of productive forces, since it contributes to the accumulation of production experience and skills among workers, to an increase in their level of qualification and knowledge, and to the development of tools. Progress characterizes the level of development of the productive forces of society.

Three major social divisions of labor known in history - the separation of pastoral tribes, the separation of craft from agriculture, the separation of trade - contributed to an increase in labor productivity and created material prerequisites for regular exchange, the emergence of private property and the division of society into classes. The social division of labor in the conditions of pre-socialist formations leads to the separation of the city from the countryside and to the emergence of an opposition between them, as well as an opposition between mental and physical labor.

Under capitalism, as a result of the development of machine production, the social division of labor deepens and the final separation of industry from Agriculture. The capitalist relations of production have extraordinarily strengthened the antagonistic character of the division of labor characteristic of exploitative formations. All these processes are carried out spontaneously, unevenly, in conditions of fierce competition and lead to disproportions and wastefulness of social labor. The capitalist division of labor gives rise to the so-called "partial", one-sidedly developed worker.

Socialism creates fundamentally new system social division of labor. It is devoid of the limitations inherent in capitalism, develops systematically and is subordinated to the goal of increasing efficiency. social production. Under socialism, the antithesis between town and countryside, mental and physical labor, has been abolished. Relations of cooperation and comradely mutual assistance exist between the workers of socialist enterprises. The development of technology under socialism is connected with the elimination of the division of labor between the workers of enterprises that enslaves man, which has taken shape in capitalist machine production.

Socialism faces the task of "replacing a partial worker, a simple bearer of a certain partial social function, with a comprehensively developed individual, for whom various social functions are successive modes of life activity." The transformation of socialism into a world system gives rise to a new type of economic relations between states - the international socialist division of labor, which is fundamentally different from the international capitalist division of labor.

Forms of division of labor

There are three forms of social division of labor:

General;
private;
single.

The general division of labor is expressed in the division of social production into large areas: industry, agriculture (agriculture), construction, communications, etc.

Private divisions of labor are manifested in the formation of various independent branches within: industry, agriculture and other areas of material production.

The individual division is reflected in the division of labor directly at the enterprise.

All forms of division of labor are interconnected.

Under the influence of the general division of labor, private divisions are carried out, for example, new branches are singled out in industry.

Under the influence of the private division of labor (DT), in connection with the specialization of individual industries, a single DT is being improved at the enterprise.

In turn, in connection with the competition of production and technical progress, a single division of labor has an impact on the emergence of new industries. The leading role of industry presupposes the creation of such a system of division of labor that would correspond to the tasks and essence of expanding reproduction and increasing the efficiency of production.

The development of the division of labor

At an early stage in the development of society, there was a natural division of labor - by sex and age. With the complication of the instruments of production, with the expansion of the forms of human influence on nature, their labor began to be qualitatively differentiated and certain types of it began to stand apart from each other. This was dictated by obvious expediency, since the division of labor led to an increase in its productivity. V. I. Lenin wrote: “In order to increase the productivity of human labor, directed, for example, to the production of some particle of the entire product, it is necessary that the production of this particle be specialized, become a special production that deals with a mass product and therefore allows (and challenging) the use of machines, etc.” From this, Lenin concluded that the specialization of social labor "... by its very essence, is endless - just like the development of technology."

Production is unthinkable without cooperation, cooperation of people, which gives rise to a certain distribution of activity. “It goes without saying,” K. Marx wrote, “that this necessity of distributing social labor in certain proportions cannot in any way be destroyed by a certain form of social production, only the form of its manifestation can change.” The forms of distribution of labor find direct expression in the division of labor, which also determines the existence of historically determined forms of ownership. “Different stages in the development of the division of labor,” Marx and Engels wrote, “are at the same time different forms of ownership, i.e., each stage of the division of labor also determines the relationship of individuals to each other, in accordance with their relationship to material, tools and products of labor ".

The process of distributing people in production, connected with the growth of specialization, takes place either consciously, according to plan, or takes on a spontaneous and antagonistic character. In primitive communities, this process was systematic. The tools of labor here were individualized, but labor and the use of its results could not then be fragmented - the low productivity of people's labor excluded their separation from the community.

Since in the entire previous history of mankind the process of production consisted in the fact that people wedged a tool of production between themselves and the object of labor, themselves becoming a direct component of the production process, then, starting from the primitive community, the individualization of tools of labor led to the “attachment” of people to them and certain types differentiated activities. But since all members of the community had common interests, such “attachment” was of a natural nature, was considered justified and reasonable.

With the development of the tools of production, the expediency and necessity of the relatively isolated labor of individuals arose, and more productive tools made it possible for individual families to exist separately. This is how direct social labor, as it was in primitive communities, was transformed into private labor. Describing the rural community as a transitional form to complete private property, Marx noted that here the labor of individuals acquired an isolated, private character, and this was the reason for the emergence of private property. “But the most essential,” he wrote, “is parcel labor as a source of private appropriation.”

In pre-capitalist formations, Engels wrote, “the means of labor — land, agricultural tools, workshops, handicraft tools — were the means of labor of individuals, designed only for individual use, but for this reason they, as a rule, belonged to the producer himself. Consequently, the right of ownership of products rested on one's own labor.

As a result of the fragmentation of labor, its transformation into private labor and the emergence of private property, the opposite of the economic interests of individuals, social inequality arose, society developed in conditions of spontaneity. It has entered an antagonistic period in its history. People began to attach themselves to certain tools of labor and various types of increasingly differentiated activities against their will and consciousness, due to the blind necessity of developing production. This main feature of the antagonistic division of labor is not an eternal state, as if inherent in the very nature of people, but a historically transient phenomenon.

The determining condition for the division of labor is the growth of the productive forces of society. "The level of development of the productive forces of a nation is revealed most clearly in the degree to which the division of labor is developed in it." At the same time, the development and differentiation of the instruments of production play a decisive role in deepening the division of labor. In turn, the division of labor contributes to the development of productive forces, the growth of labor productivity. The accumulation of production experience and skills in people for work is directly dependent on the degree of division of labor, on the specialization of workers in certain types of labor. Technological progress is inextricably linked with the development of the social division of labor.

The growth and deepening of the division of labor also influence the development of production relations. Within the framework of the primitive communal system, the first major social division of labor historically arose (the separation of shepherd tribes), which created the conditions for regular exchange between the tribes. “The first major social division of labor, together with an increase in the productivity of labor, and, consequently, wealth, and with the expansion of the sphere of productive activity, under the then historical conditions, taken as a whole, necessarily entailed slavery. From the first major social division of labor arose the first major division of society into two classes - masters and slaves, exploiters and exploited. With the emergence of the slave system, on the basis of the further growth of productive forces, the second major social division of labor developed - the separation of handicrafts from agriculture, which marked the beginning of the separation of the city from the countryside and the emergence of opposition between them. The separation of handicrafts from agriculture meant the emergence of commodity production. The further development of exchange entailed the third major social division of labor - the separation of trade from production and the separation of the merchant class. In the era of slavery, the opposite appears between mental and physical labor. The emergence of a territorial and professional division of labor also belongs to ancient times.

Economic division of labor

The regularity of the division of labor is due to a historically objective process that creates the prerequisites for the economic, political and intellectual development of mankind. "Although the division of labor has not existed since yesterday, - noted the French sociologist E. Durkheim - but only at the end of the last century, societies began to realize this law, which until that time had controlled them almost without their knowledge." Undoubtedly, already in antiquity, some thinkers noted the importance of the separation of labor functions, but the first who tried to develop a theory of the division of labor was Adam Smith, who created this term itself. He believed that the division of labor is by no means the result of someone's wisdom, foreseeing and realizing the general welfare that it generates: it is a consequence - although very slowly and gradually developing - of a certain propensity of human nature, namely, the propensity to change, trade, to the exchange of one object for another.

In the organizational and technical aspect, the division of labor is correlated with a change in its content as a way of linking the producer with the means of production, determined by the level of development of the productive forces. In the socio-economic aspect, the division of labor correlates with a change in its nature as a way of linking the producer with the means of production, determined by the level of development of production (economic) relations. Paving its way spontaneously and at the same time as an objective necessity, this law determines the dynamics of the division of labor into its various types (physical and mental, industrial and agricultural, skilled and unskilled, executive and managerial, etc.) and at the same time - the basis for dividing society into social groups employed by these types of labor and relations between groups depending on their social status and the prestige of labor.

The law of the division of labor, the earliest of all, originated in a slave-owning society, under conditions of almost complete separation of mental activity from the tasks of material production. The essential features of the division of labor in antiquity were the development of labor cooperation, without which the labor of slaves, equipped with primitive tools, could not ensure the performance of titanic work. Here the justice of the fact that labor is organized and divided differently, depending on what tools it has at its disposal, is especially clearly visible. The division of labor in society and the workshop was carried out not for the sake of reducing the time spent on manufacturing a unit of production, but for the sake of achieving the perfection of the product. This was due to the natural nature of slave-owning production, the worker's interest not in value, but in consumer value. The preservation of this principle had a beneficial effect on the development of the productive forces of the worker. Even in the conditions of slavery there was a process of accumulation of knowledge among the people.

The peculiarities of the division of labor in the feudal era are connected with the nature of feudal property, for the property born from the division of labor has a strong inverse effect on the division of labor. In accordance with the two forms of ownership (land - feudal and corporate - artisans), the general division of labor into agricultural and handicrafts acquired more and more sharp features. The fact that the concentration of property in the city became less than in the countryside caused the city to lose its former dominance. The beginning of radical changes was associated with the separation of trade from production in the cities and the concentration of trade relations in the hands of a special layer - merchants. The separation of production from trade caused a new division of labor - between cities. The consequence of the division was the emergence of manufactories that determined the division of labor within the enterprise.

In the technical and organizational aspect, manufactories represented a necessary historical stage in the progressive development of production, the formation of its harmonious organization (albeit on an empirical basis) in the interests of increasing labor productivity. In the socio-economic aspect, manufactory was a special method of production in relation to surplus value, reflecting the level of development of socio-economic relations in society. At the same time, the division of labor within the workshop revealed its destructive effect on the personality of the worker: the division of labor into mental and physical reached its climax; the distance between the level of knowledge and culture of representatives of mental and physical labor has sharply increased; the spiritual potentialities of the material process of production acted as alien property and power dominating the worker.

The force of the destructive effect of the division of labor on the personality of the worker in the manufacturing period was so great that philosophers, sociologists, and historians expressed deep concern about the fate of human progress. “A person,” wrote A. Smith, “whose whole life passes in performing a few simple operations ... does not have the opportunity and need to refine his mental abilities or exercise his quick wit and becomes as stupid and ignorant as a human being can become. dexterity and skill in his special profession seem to be acquired at the expense of his mental, social and strong-willed qualities. But in every developed civilized society, it is precisely in such a state that the working poor, i.e. the main mass of the people, must inevitably fall.

During the period of early capitalism, the manufacturing division of labor created the prerequisites for the emergence of a large-scale machine industry. The approach to ever greater synchronicity of operations marked the beginning of a harmonious organization of production and the continuity of production processes. On the basis of these prerequisites, the industrial revolution of the 18th - first half of the 19th century was carried out, the essence of which was a grand leap in the level of productivity of social labor, carried out by replacing manufacturing production with production based on the use of a system of machines.

So, the division of labor qualitatively changes its character and becomes revolutionary from evolutionary, when science turns into a necessary component of production. The first manifestation of the influence of science on the division of labor within the enterprise was expressed in the fact that in the system of machines the division of labor began to be determined by the objective production mechanism (as opposed to manufacture, where it was determined by the subjective factor).

The second manifestation of the impact of science on the division of labor within the enterprise is that "machine production eliminates the need to fix manufacturing ... distribution, to attach the same workers forever to the same functions." This impact of science on the division of labor conceals the possibility of overcoming professional degradation and satisfying the emerging objective need of production for a universal labor force. Being embodied in automatic systems of machines, science constantly makes revolutions in the technical basis of production, and at the same time in the functions of workers, requiring their retraining.

The third manifestation of the impact of science on the division of labor within the enterprise is associated with the main direction in the change in the functions of the total worker: the introduction of scientific achievements into production changes the proportions in the totality of functions associated with the expenditure of mental energy, and reduces the volume of executive functions associated mainly with the expenditure of physical energy. The ratio of the costs of mental and physical labor is becoming the main indicator of scientific and technological progress. As this pattern develops, the division of labor becomes the main factor in the development of a universal labor force in the labor market.

The transformation of science into a direct productive force in the world capitalist economy entails fundamental changes not only in the functions of workers, but also in the social combinations of the labor process, as a result of which the division of labor in society is revolutionized. The changes in the social division of labor that follow every major improvement continually throw masses of capital, and hence masses of workers, from one branch to another. If until the middle of the XX century. a small number of industries (electricity, construction, railways, automotive industry), then in the 80-90s, about 180 new types of production actively influence the economy (nuclear industry, rocket science, machine tool building with program control, microelectronics, etc.).

New, economically profitable areas are constantly emerging and absorbing huge masses of labor. New branches of production are being created on a new technical basis, while traditional branches, in an effort to survive in the competition, carry out modernization. As industries are equipped the latest achievements science and technology is the process of pushing the labor force out of the sphere of production.

Types of division of labor

As you know, the social division of labor is of three types:

General, or division of labor between large areas of material production (industry, agriculture, transport, communications, etc.);
- private, or division of labor within these large areas (engineering, instrumentation and other industries; animal husbandry, crop production and other branches of agriculture);
- single, or division of labor within one enterprise, which creates finished products. The concept of "enterprise" in this case is interpreted in a broad sense - we mean specialized enterprises that manufacture elements, for example, of a complex machine (finished product).

Therefore, in terms of global analysis in the field of the world economy, we are faced with three types of MRI:

the international general division of labor;
- international private division of labor;
- international single division of labor.

The main types of division of labor in the enterprise are: functional, technological, subject and operational.

Functional. The functional division of labor is based on the nature of the functions performed. According to the functions performed, four main groups of personnel are usually distinguished: managers, specialists (engineers, economists, lawyers, etc.), workers and students.

Within the framework of the functional division of labor, a professional and qualification division of labor is distinguished. The professional division of labor is carried out depending on the professional specialization of the workers and involves the performance of work in the workplace within the framework of a particular profession.

The qualification division of labor is due to the varying complexity of work that requires a certain level of knowledge and experience of workers.

The choice of the most rational forms of the division of labor depends on the type of production, the volume of output, its complexity, etc. Therefore, their search implies a mandatory analysis of these factors and the rationale for the optimal division of labor.

The technological division of labor is determined by the division of the labor process into homogeneous types of work. The main attention is paid to the formation of operations in terms of duration, frequency and content. The division of labor on this basis is the basis for grouping workers according to professions and specialties.

The substantive division of labor means the division of a technologically homogeneous process into independent work processes with the allocation individual workers for their implementation.

operational division of labor. A single workflow is broken down into operations performed by different workers. The classification of the forms of division of labor in agriculture can serve as a basis for determining the need for labor resources, their professional and qualification composition. On the basis of the accepted forms of division of labor, the most appropriate arrangement of performers at workplaces is ensured and their rational interaction in the production process is established.

In solving questions of the division of labor, the concepts of "separation boundaries" and "separation level" are used. The boundaries of division are the lower and upper limits, below and above which the division of labor is unacceptable.

The level of division is an accepted calculated or actually achieved value that characterizes the state of the division of labor. In this regard, the boundaries of the division of labor have great importance. It should be remembered that the correct establishment of the boundaries of division is the most important condition for the organization of labor.

Thus, the division of labor should not:

Lead to a decrease in the efficiency of the use of working time and equipment;
be accompanied by depersonalization and irresponsibility in the organization of production;
be excessively fractional so as not to complicate the design, organization of production processes, and labor rationing;
lead to a decrease in the qualifications of workers;
deprive labor of content;
make it monotonous and tedious.

There are technological, economic, psycho-physiological and social boundaries of the division of labor.

The technological boundary of the division of labor is determined by the existing technology, which divides the production process into operations. The lower limit of the formation of the content of the operation is a labor technique, consisting of at least three labor actions, continuously following each other and having a specific purpose. The upper limit of the division of labor will be the manufacture of the entire product at one workplace.

The economic frontier characterizes the impact of the division of labor on the economic results of production, in particular, on the total costs of labor and material resources. However, the excessive division of labor based on the fragmentation of individual technological operations leads to a violation of the proportions in the structure of time costs. At the same time, such a fragmentation of the labor process should be provided so that the level of workload of workers is uniform and the duration of the production cycle is reduced.

The psychophysiological boundary determines the degree of fatigue of the performer when performing a particular job. To avoid overwork, it is necessary to provide for the normal intensity of labor.

The social boundary of the division of labor provides for a variety of labor functions, which must ensure sufficient content and attractiveness of labor. Labor, which is a set of simple movements and actions, reduces interest in it. It is devoid of elementary creativity and is characterized by monotony.

Labor cooperation is a form of labor organization, work performance, based on the joint participation in a single labor process of a significant number of workers performing various operations of this process.

Labor cooperation takes place in all spheres of economic activity, it takes a variety of forms.

The forms and nature of labor relations depend on the forms of division of labor, i.e., the composition of workers by profession and qualification, and on the level and means of mechanization of labor processes.

Economic science distinguishes the following forms of labor cooperation:

1. Simple cooperation - the union of a group of workers performing homogeneous work without division of labor. The simple form of labor cooperation is characterized by the use of manual labor, and therefore it is widespread in the performance of agricultural work with a low level of mechanization.
2. Complex cooperation - the unification of a group of workers to perform a single production process based on the division and specialization of labor. Thanks to the division and specialization of labor, skills are developed in workers, time is saved for labor activities, and joint work becomes more productive.

Within the framework of complex cooperation, the following forms can be distinguished:

Intersectoral (crop - livestock) cooperation is aimed at ensuring their well-coordinated interaction in the production of end products enterprises, both livestock and crop;
intra-industry cooperation. With it, interconnected activities are carried out for the production of final products within the industry;
cooperation within the site, for the release of a certain type of product or the performance of a certain type of work;
intra-brigade cooperation, uniting workers who jointly perform a single production task for the brigade and bear collective responsibility for the results of the brigade's work;
inter-executive - cooperation between autonomous workers.

The group mode of labor, regardless of the degree of interconnection between cooperating workers, contains both positive and negative features.

The benefits of teamwork in production include:

Joint use of means of labor, increasing the efficiency of their use;
example the best workers that has an educational impact on others;
collectivism, stimulating vital energy and increasing efficiency;
direct contact and general interest of the team in the results of work;
interchangeability.

The negative features of teamwork include:

Anonymity in the use of means of production;
reduction of personal material interest and responsibility for the overall results;
violation of the general labor rhythm due to the participation in the labor process of a low-skilled or undisciplined worker.

Division of labor system

In the process of competitive struggle between countries, a system of international division of labor (ILD) has developed, which is expressed in the sustainable production of goods and services by individual countries in excess of domestic needs in the calculation of the international market. It is based on international specialization, which implies a spatial gap either between individual countries or between production and consumption in the international space. It is also influenced by: natural and geographical factors; differences in the scale of production of national economies, differences in the achieved levels and available opportunities within the country division of labor. The relative narrowness of domestic markets and the limited possibilities for the division of labor within national economies encourage small countries and their companies to take a more active part in MRI, increase the importance of specialization of national production oriented to the world market.

The degree of development of MRI is determined by the participation of individual companies, countries, subsystems in international exchange. It is highest in industrialized countries. International specialization in the production of goods and services increases the competitiveness of the economy. Developed countries benefit the most, as raw materials, fuels and products of their primary processing predominate in the exports of developing countries, and manufactured products in the exports of developed countries.

The indicators of participation in MRI are:

1. The share of exported products in the total volume of production;
2. Exchange ratio foreign trade to GDP;
3. The share of the country in international trade, including trade in certain goods;
4. Foreign trade turnover per capita.

However, the share of a particular country in international trade does not yet give a complete picture. The extent to which a country is included in the MRI system is more fully characterized by the share of exports in GDP.

Participation in MRI is a prerequisite for international cooperative production. The process of cooperation is a necessary condition for the establishment of highly specialized production and the implementation of large-scale projects, which are often not feasible by the efforts of one country. For example, the European Airbus and many other types of aircraft are assembled in France from assemblies, parts and parts produced in many EU countries. Under the conditions of cooperation, international trade is increasingly reduced to coordinated deliveries of goods between cooperating enterprises. various countries, often within multinational companies.

Intra-regional international cooperative supplies already today reach 50-60% of the cost of production of many industries in Western Europe. More than 30% of the trade turnover between these states falls on mutual deliveries in the order of cooperation. The role of cooperative deliveries in the export of developing countries, including such large ones as India, Brazil, and Mexico, is growing.

The development of cooperation and specialization is facilitated by many factors associated with the development of scientific and technological progress: the growth in the capacity of enterprises, the acceleration of obsolescence of equipment and the range of industrial products, the creation of new types of products.

Deepening the specialization of countries in MRI is a general condition for accelerating industrial and scientific and technological progress, which has led to the modification of types of MRI. There was a transition from intersectoral to intrasectoral division of labor. This increased the specialization not only of companies and enterprises, but also of industries and countries.

Today MRI causes:

1. Exchange of goods and services between countries;
2. International capital flows;
3. Migration of labor force;
4. Integration processes.

Division of Labor Processes

In general, the process of division of labor includes the definition in activity:

functional areas;
- functional units;
- actions (sustainable labor functions);
- operations.

To determine these elements of activity, we use the so-called functional-level approach, from the position of which the activity is considered as a multi-level system, each level of which has its own elements. Each of these elements implements certain functions in relation to the "superior" level or to the entire activity.

Functional areas of activity combine those elements that are related to the performance of any organizational function - financial, production or personnel management. Usually in the organization each of the specified functions corresponds to its own structural unit (or manager).

Functional units of activity (FED) are already components of the field of activity, “responsible” for the implementation of some tasks that are close in content and complexity. For example, in the activities of a manager who manages personnel, there are several such units: training (training and retraining of personnel, advanced training, etc.), control (control over compliance with discipline, standards labor law etc.), communicative (conducting interviews and interviews with candidates) and others.

Each FED includes certain actions. These are the smallest units of activity that retain all of its characteristics.

An action is a stable labor function, that is, it is a behavioral act in which the meaningfulness of behavior is preserved - the subject is realized (what the activity is aimed at), the goal is comprehended, the procedure is thought out, and the means of its implementation are consciously selected. Continuing the process of division of labor on the example of a personnel manager, in the training unit of his activity, the following actions can be distinguished: determining the need for training, developing learning objectives, drawing up a training plan, etc.

Actions are made up of operations - most often of unconscious, automated particles of action. That is, when performing a certain operation, a person practically does not think about its subject and purpose.

For example, creating a new file while working on a computer is an action. You are aware, aware of why (the goal) to open it - to write a letter or coursework(subject of activity). But pressing the corresponding keys or corresponding mouse movements are operations. And (of course, provided that you have a good command of the computer) this happens automatically, since it has been done more than once. A person does not think why and why at the moment it is necessary to press this key.

Working on a computer as a whole is a functional unit that includes quite conscious actions for creating files, moving them, designing, etc. The subject of such a unit is information, the goal is to simplify, streamline and speed up its processing, the means is the computer itself, the technology is a set of appropriate actions and operations.

The result of the FED depends on the goal - developing a database, for example, or writing a term paper.

World division of labor

National market economies do not develop in isolation, but in close interaction with each other. No country in the world can produce the entire modern range of goods, of which there are tens of millions, provide itself with hundreds of various services, investment and labor resources, highly qualified specialists. Countries meet the growing needs of a personal and industrial nature through mutual exchange and cooperation in production, scientific research, solving environmental and other global problems that require the pooling of financial, technical, professional and other resources. As the productive forces develop, the interdependence of national economies increases, the socio-economic development of countries is increasingly determined by the scale, diversity and efficiency of their economic relations with the rest of the world, which together form the system of international economic relations (IER).

The international division of labor (ILD) is one of the most important basic categories that determines the content of the world economy and international economic relations. Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, the development of productive forces takes place. All the boundaries of the world are involved in MRI to one degree or another, which gives them an additional economic effect, which is expressed in a more complete satisfaction of their needs at the lowest cost.

The international division of labor is the objective material basis for the international exchange of goods and services, knowledge and technology, as well as the basis for the development of industrial scientific, technical and other cooperation between countries, regardless of their economic development and position in the world economy.

The development of the international division of labor actively influences the deepening of production relations and productive forces, and has a significant impact on intranational forms of the division of labor.

As a result of the MRI, conditions are created for migration processes, the overflow of capital and structural transformations in the world economy. It is the basis for the formation of the world market and the basis for the development of international trade.

The international division of labor in its development has gone through three stages:

Stage 1. XVII - first half of the XVIII centuries. It was based on differences in the geographical and climatic conditions of the existence of countries, in the reserves of raw materials and energy sources.

Only what was consumed domestically was exported, since the use of stocks did not provide a high level of labor productivity and significant surpluses of production.

Stage 2. Second half of the 18th - early 20th century At this stage, the basis of the international division of labor began to be determined by artificial (secondary) factors formed as a result of the use of the achievements of the industrial revolution.

The countries that mastered machine production began to supply the foreign market with technically complex products, as well as cheap consumer goods. The rest of the countries specialized in trade in raw materials, agricultural products, handicrafts.

Stage 3. 1917-1990s of the twentieth century It was characterized by the split of the world into socialist and capitalist political systems, so the economic development of their countries, and, accordingly, the division of labor was carried out separately in each. But the general trend towards mutual penetration, integration of national economies was traced.

At the same time, the world remains divided into developed and developing countries. In the first model of the international division of labor, manufacturing industries were concentrated among countries; in the second - the extractive industry and agriculture, i.e. they were preserved as an agrarian raw material appendage.

The new model of the international division of labor that is being formed today is based on the participation of all states, including developing ones, in the production of the finished product. However, within its framework, developed countries specialize in science-intensive production (radio electronics, instrumentation), while developing countries specialize in resource-intensive production that is harmful to the environment.

The international division of labor in the world economy on a functional basis is divided into three types:

General MRI, i.e. by spheres of production and sectors of the national economy. In this case, the exporting countries can be divided into industrial, raw materials and agricultural;
- private MRI - the division of labor within large areas into industries, sub-sectors and types of production. There is an expansion of a new base for the international exchange of goods and services and their range is diversified;
- single MRI, i.е. specialization in individual operations (manufacturing of individual units, parts, assemblies and components of products) and at technological stages.

The main thing in the development of the international division of labor is that each of its participants must have an economic interest, benefit from their participation in it.

This benefit may include:

Obtaining the difference between the international value of exported and imported goods and services;
- in saving national costs due to the rejection of goods of own production and their replacement with cheaper imports.

The ability of any country to participate in the international division of labor, as well as its place and role in the MTR, depend on the following factors:

1. The volume of the domestic market of the country. Large countries (USA, Germany, etc.) have more opportunities to find the necessary factors of production and consumer goods on the market, as a result of which they have less incentive to participate in international specialization and trade. At the same time, diversified demand in the country contributes to the expansion of import purchases.
2. Provision of the country with natural resources. Thus, a large number of oil reserves determines the international specialization of Iran, Iraq and other OPEC countries (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). Significant reserves of gold and diamonds in the Republic of South Africa, gas in Russia, copper in Chile determine, respectively, the preferential directions of their participation in the international division of labor. The high degree of provision of the country with mono-resources (for example, oil, coffee, bananas) necessitates more active participation countries in the international division of labor.
3. Dynamics of national production. Under the influence of scientific and technical progress, its growth rates accelerated significantly in the second half of the 20th century. This makes it possible to direct an ever greater part of the production for export and expand the import of exotic goods, products of a higher quality than local ones, and thereby diversify the satisfaction of one's own needs.
4. Progressiveness of the structure of the country's economy and the level of its scientific and technological development, which largely determine its international specialization. For example, basically only the US, France, Germany and Russia produce complex military equipment (aircraft, tanks, missiles, space equipment, etc.).
5. Share in the structure of the country's economy of basic industries (energy, mining, metallurgy, etc.). The higher it is, the less, as a rule, its inclusion in the system of international economic relations.
6. The degree of openness of the national economy, its readiness for external cooperation.
7. The ability to adapt to the conditions of international economic life and at the same time influence them in the desired direction.

The impact of these factors can be mitigated to varying degrees, for example by increasing the international competitiveness of local products and restricting exports.

Benefits of MRI:

The possibility of specialization of the country in those industries and industries, the development of which is favorable in them in terms of the natural and geographical factor, the degree of development of the scientific and technical base, as well as in accordance with historical traditions;
- the ability to use the achievements of scientific and technological progress by importing goods, scientific and technical products and, most importantly, advanced technologies (in particular, through the creation of joint ventures) in order to increase the efficiency of the national economy;
- improving the well-being of the population by increasing the degree of satisfaction of its diverse consumers, both through imports of goods and through industries created on the basis of foreign advanced technologies.

Fundamentals of the division of labor

The formation of the world economy is based on the international division of labor.

The international division of labor (IMT) can be defined as the highest stage in the development of the socio-territorial division of labor between countries, which is based on a stable, economically profitable specialization of the production of individual countries in certain types of products and leads to the mutual exchange of production results between them in certain quantitative and quality ratios.

The international division of labor acts as an objective basis for the international exchange of goods, services, knowledge of industrial, scientific, technical, trade and other cooperation between the countries of the world. It is participation in the MRI that is the most important material prerequisite for effective economic interaction between states.

The main motivation for participation in MRI for all countries of the world, regardless of their socio-economic differences, is their desire for economic benefits.

In modern conditions, the need to solve the global problems of mankind by the joint efforts of all countries of the world can be attributed to the number of universal human incentives to participate in MRI, as well as to use its capabilities. The range of such problems is very wide: from environmental protection and solving the food problem on a planetary scale to space exploration.

The development of the international division of labor is influenced by a system of factors, the components of which have different effects in different periods of time.

Factors in the development of the international division of labor cover:

1. Natural and geographical differences, namely: the natural and climatic conditions of the country; Natural resources; the size of the territory; Population; economic and geographical position. For example, the favorable climatic conditions of Cyprus determine the specialization in the export of tourism and recreational services, and the explored oil reserves in the Middle East predetermined the export of this strategic resource by a number of Arab countries. The relatively excessive population in most developing countries directly affects the transfer of the most labor-intensive stages of the production cycle (for example, assembly) by large corporations there, which makes it possible to achieve significant savings on production costs due to lower wages than in developed countries.
2. Socio-economic conditions - features of the historical development of production traditions and traditional external relations; the achieved level of economic and scientific and technical development; social type and the mechanism for organizing national production; social nature and mechanism of organization of foreign economic relations. Thus, the former huge colonial possessions of Great Britain to this day form the geography of its foreign trade.
3. Scientific and technological progress, under the influence of which the participation of the country in the international division of labor is gradually becoming less dependent on natural conditions. For example, Japan, which does not have the minerals necessary for the production of engineering products, as a result of its leadership in the relevant scientific developments, is now one of the largest exporters of precisely this product. Improvement of information technology, its implementation in all major areas public life changes the division of labor that has developed over the centuries to its proportion of its distribution between countries, industries, regions, while simultaneously transforming the forms of its organization.

Differences in habits, tastes and preferences between countries also affect the development of MRI. Even when two countries are provided with the same resources and use them with the same efficiency, each of them will reap "its" benefits from specialization if the tastes and preferences of the populations of both countries differ significantly. Differentiation in consumption preferences leads to trade between countries, and trade, in turn, promotes specialization if a given country is willing to exploit its comparative advantage. So, Norway and Sweden fish and produce meat in approximately the same conditions and quantities, but the Swedes prefer meat, and the Norwegians prefer fish.

The main indicators by which one can judge the degree of participation in the MRT are export and import quotas.

The export quota is calculated by the formula:

XQ= (X/GDP)*100%,
where X is the value of annual exports.

The import quota is calculated by the formula:

MQ \u003d (M / GDP) * 100%,
where M is the value of annual imports.

For example, the size of the export quota of the Republic of Belarus is about 55%, the USA - 12%, in Germany - 27%, England - 29%, France - 24%, Belgium - 71.2%. Among the 24 richest industrial economies, exports, measured as a share of GDP, have doubled over the past 40 years.

The realization of the advantages of MRI in the process of international exchange of any country under favorable conditions provides: firstly, obtaining the difference between the international and domestic prices of exported goods and services; secondly, saving domestic resources due to the abandonment of national production while using cheaper imports.

The two forms of the international division of labor are international specialization and the resulting international cooperation of production.

Under the international specialization of production (SME) is understood such a form of division of labor between countries, in which the increase in the concentration of homogeneous production in the world occurs on the basis of the process of differentiation of national industries, separation into independent (separate) technological processes, into separate industries and sub-sectors of manufacturing products of labor in excess of domestic needs, which increases the interdependence of national economies. For example, Japan specializes in the production of cars, ships, electronics, watches; Namibia - on the extraction of uranium and diamonds; Zambia is an exporter of copper ore and refined copper; Colombia is one of the largest coffee producers. Specializing in the production of a certain group of goods, specific countries receive the necessary goods that are scarce for them on the international market through exchange with other countries specializing in other groups of goods.

The development of specialization in production is a consequence of technological progress. The specialization of enterprises in different countries in the manufacture of partial products is associated with modern scientific and technological revolution.

International specialization of production (SME) develops in two directions: production and territorial.

In turn, the production direction is divided into intersectoral, intrasectoral specialization and specialization of individual enterprises.

In the territorial aspect, SME involves the specialization of individual countries and regions in the production of certain products and their parts for the world market.

The main types of SMEs are:

Subject (production of a certain type of product);
detail (production of parts, components of products);
technological (performing individual operations or performing individual technological processes).

Specialization creates prerequisites for international cooperation.

International cooperation is a process of stable production relations of various countries that have fully retained their independent economic activity in developing the production and marketing of certain goods and services.

The objective basis of international production cooperation (ICP) is the growing level of development of production forces, the degree of their breakdown into industries, industries, enterprises. A powerful stimulus for the development of the MCP was a radical transformation in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution of the primary cell of production - an enterprise from which individual stages of the technological process are actively “spun off”, the output constituent parts final product. In the cooperation of production, advanced ideas and achievements in industries are combined and materialized. fundamental science, research and development work (R&D), production, design, management and information technologies.

In the case when cooperation ties in research activities extend further to the sphere of production or, conversely, cooperation in the sphere of production entails cooperation of partners in the field of industrial developments related to the improvement of products, we are dealing with production and technical cooperation.

When partners in production and technical cooperation agree on a common sale of their products, such cooperation takes the form of scientific, production and marketing. Cooperation in this form reflects an integrated approach to solving the problems of scientific and technological development, in which all stages of social production from scientific research to the sale of products on the world market should be linked into one system.

In accordance with the UNECE concept, among the forms of industrial cooperation are:

Supply of complete enterprises and equipment with subsequent payment of their cost with products to be manufactured on their basis;
provision of licenses and (or) production experience, as well as knowledge with the subsequent payment of their cost by deliveries of products obtained with their use;
contract;
joint production, including research and development (R&D);
joint ventures;
joint projects.

The supply of complete enterprises, equipment with subsequent payment for their cost, manufactured on their basis, or raw materials that will be mined, is a special form of industrial cooperation. It is also called cooperative cooperation on a compensatory basis or simply "compensation agreements". In addition to the supply of machines, equipment, production lines and their installation, it also includes related services provided by the supplier and the price of which, as a rule, is included in the price of the agreement. The supplier provides the client with a work plan, trains local personnel, assists in putting the facility into operation, etc. Collaboration often extends to the exchange of technical documentation and information, the conduct of joint research on product improvement, the implementation of the production process and joint marketing.

Close in essence to the first form of cooperative cooperation is the provision of licenses, production experience and knowledge with the subsequent payment of their cost by the supply of products obtained with their use. This form of cooperation can only conditionally be considered as a form of cooperation, since in this case the establishment of direct permanent industrial or scientific and technical relations between partners is not guaranteed. Such compensation agreements develop into cooperative ones, provided that joint production is established.

A contract is the simplest, initial form of cooperation, in which the contractor undertakes to perform certain work in accordance with the task of his partner in cooperation, his order and according to his technical documentation or specification. A common feature of agreements of this type of cooperative cooperation is a short term and action - most of them include short-term obligations that are renewed annually.

Joint production provides for the exchange of components and parts with subsequent assembly at the enterprise of one or both partners. Often this cooperation extends to general R&D. Joint production based on specialization makes it possible to use capacities more fully, increase the competitiveness of products, and reduce production costs.

Joint ventures (JV) are a more complex, complex form of industrial cooperation. Joint ventures concentrate the advantages and benefits of all forms of cooperation (improving the technical level of products and their competitiveness, producing products in a shorter time at lower production costs, accelerating the innovation cycle, penetrating the markets of other countries with expanding export sales to them).

Cooperative cooperation in the form of joint projects is the cooperation of two or more countries for the implementation of a project (respectively, bilateral or multilateral) both in the interests of the home countries of the cooperation partners, and for its implementation by order of any other country.

Over the past two decades, transnational cooperation has gained significant distribution in the world. corporate structures, which, depending on the form of its existence, combines almost all the above forms of international cooperation. The emergence and spread of organizational structures in the world in the form of transnational companies (TNCs) is caused by complications and interweaving business processes, increased intercompany and interstate competition for markets and sources of raw materials. TNCs, as a rule, are understood as long-term voluntary cooperation based on a contract (agreement) between legally and economically independent enterprises located in different countries to achieve a common goal through conscious coordinated behavior of partners, the number of which is not limited. The forms of such entrepreneurial cooperation are primarily determined by: the relatedness of the production activities of enterprises and the technological processes that are carried out on them, the presence or absence of a joint-stock co-founder mechanism. In the presence of the latter, the phenomenon of a transnational financial and industrial corporation arises, and many developed corporate structures are associations of a financial and industrial nature.

The importance of developing international cooperation is explained, first of all, by the constant trend of increasing the capital intensity of output new products which requires huge financial resources. International cooperation production makes it possible to significantly reduce the time for preparing the production of new goods and reduce their capital intensity. According to the UNECE, interstate agreements on technical cooperation and the exchange of components and parts based on cooperation, on average, reduce the preparation time for the production of new products by approximately 14–20 months compared to organizing it exclusively on their own, and also reduce the cost by 50–70%. development of new production. This is due to the fact that international cooperation expands the possibilities of a comprehensive, long-term and mobile use various production resources. At the same time, there are also savings due to new technical foreign developments. In addition, cooperation makes it possible to achieve over 90% of the level of quality of the foreign partner's products, while the development of foreign technology on its own makes it possible to provide only 70-80% of this indicator.

Export, as you know, is one of the priorities of the economic strategy of the Republic of Belarus. In this regard, one of the reserves for increasing Belarusian exports is concentrated within the framework of international industrial complexes. Practice shows that in modern conditions, an important form of involving Belarusian enterprises in cooperative relations is the creation of specialized financial and industrial groups (FIGs), in particular, with the Russian side. We are talking, for example, about FPG Aerospace Equipment and FPG Defense Systems.

Thus, Belarus is implementing an economic policy based on the principles of outward-oriented development. In other words, integration into the world economy is ensured, in particular, through the comprehensive development of forms of the international division of labor on the basis of large-scale and effective cooperation with other countries.

Division and cooperation of labor

As is known, in economic science, the social organization of labor is understood as the formation and maintenance of natural, reasonable proportions between the areas of application of labor, and, consequently, between the branches of social production and the non-productive sphere.

The most complex system of social organization of labor includes elements of various scales and significance:

Organization of interaction between production and non-production spheres;
organization of interaction within these areas - sectoral and intersectoral organization of labor;
organization of interaction within industries - organization of labor at individual enterprises;
organization of interaction within enterprises - in their structural divisions up to the organization of labor of individual workers-performers.

The need to organize labor at any of these levels is due to such objectively existing and constantly developing categories as the division and the accompanying cooperation of labor.

The division of labor is the separation of the activities of individual workers and their groups in the labor process. Thanks to the division of labor, the professional capacity of workers is increased, labor productivity is increased, and the instruments of production and technology are improved.

There are three types of division of labor: general, particular and individual. It is customary to refer to the general division of labor as its division between the production and non-production spheres of human activity, and within these spheres - between industry, agriculture, transport, communications, trade, public education, science, public administration, culture, etc.

The private division of labor presupposes its division within the spheres and branches of the general division of labor. For example, industry is divided into branches, sub-sectors, associations, individual enterprises. A similar private division of labor exists in any branch of the non-productive sphere: in public education, medicine, public administration, and so on.

The unit division of labor provides for the distribution of work and labor functions between employees of a separate enterprise or separate organization: by workshops, sections, brigades, links, individual workers-performers, as well as by their professional qualification groups.

This type of division of labor is the most complex and important, since specific labor processes are carried out precisely within the framework of a single division of labor. At the same level, economic results are also realized: specialization of performers and their improvement professional excellence, the use of specialized high-performance equipment, the growth of labor productivity and the improvement of production efficiency in general.

But the division of labor is only one side of labor activity. It makes it necessary to combine the labor of individual workers and their groups in a common labor process, in interconnected labor processes at all levels - from the workplaces of individual performers and teams to entire enterprises, sub-sectors and interconnected sectors of the national economy. From this it is clear that another important element in the organization of labor activity is the cooperation of labor.

Labor cooperation is an association, the establishment of relationships between divided, specialized performers in the process of labor activity. The complexity and importance of labor cooperation directly in production increases as the individual division of labor deepens.

With an objective division of labor, when finished products are manufactured at the workplaces of individual workers, it is enough to provide the main production workers with raw materials, materials, energy, transport services, serviceable tools and equipment, technical documentation and determine the number of these workers based on the volume production program and complexity of products.

But with a detailed division of labor, when only individual parts of the product are manufactured at different workplaces (with different labor inputs for manufacturing and assembling the product), a more difficult task arises - to unite the labor of all participants in a given production site, to ensure labor cooperation within the site. In this case, it is labor cooperation that should ensure the continuity and uninterrupted production and labor processes, the most complete use of equipment and high labor productivity.

This problem is solved by arranging performers in proportion to the complexity of manufacturing individual parts and assembling the product. If the volume of production is greater than the minimum estimated number workers, their number increases in proportion to the labor intensity. With a smaller volume of production, work on the manufacture of parts is combined.

There are the following forms of labor cooperation:

Cooperation within the enterprise - between individual employees, sections, workshops, divisions;
intra-industry cooperation - between enterprises of specific industries for the production of certain types of products;
cooperation within society - between sectors of the economy.

The development of scientific and technological progress significantly affects the nature of the division and cooperation of labor. With the improvement of technology and technology, the conveyor with manual execution of monotonous tedious operations is being replaced by automatic systems, and a low-level worker is turning into a highly skilled operator. This requires an increase in the cultural and technical level of workers, opening up broad opportunities for changing jobs.

Division of labor in an organization

The division of labor implies that certain types of activity are isolated from each other and assigned to individual people or units. At the present stage, the production of goods or the provision of services is impossible without the division of labor.

One person is simply not able to follow production, develop new technologies, sell goods and carry out financial reporting. The point is not only the impossibility of combining these functions, but also the fact that each of them requires special knowledge and skills.

Therefore, there is a need for a leader who would clearly define the tasks of each employee and control their implementation. To some extent, management is present in any organization. Even in an organization that includes only two people, it is necessary to coordinate actions and make decisions in order to make the most efficient use of the resources that are available.

Management is always connected with the internal center of the organization, that is, with its leadership, which does not report to anyone and has the right to make decisions independently. The tasks of management include making decisions about what actions should be taken and how it should be done; in addition, management must resolve conflicts between employees and departments, stimulate employees, make decisions about changing the goals of the organization, changing or expanding the scope of activities, etc.

If the organization is large, then it may have several control centers.

For example, in large organizations, the division of labor between separate departments is inevitable, and each of the departments has its own leadership. However, even in this case, it is impossible to do without an internal center that will coordinate and coordinate the actions of units and their leadership. For example, the purchasing department should purchase only those materials that will satisfy the production department. In addition, the quality and price of the material determine the quality and price of the product, and, therefore, the supply department must coordinate its actions with the sales department: if the product is too expensive or its quality does not match the price, the sales department simply cannot sell it.

The division of labor improves the quality of work. Firstly, this is due to the fact that it is easier for an individual person or unit to carry out assigned tasks if they are foreseeable, that is, if there are not so many of them. Secondly, thanks to the division of labor, specialization becomes possible, which makes it possible to improve the quality of labor: a person engaged in specific type works, quickly acquires rich skills and abilities, and, consequently, his activities will be more productive and efficient.

The division of labor can be vertical or horizontal. With a vertical division of labor, each manager has a sphere of activity for which he is responsible (a sphere of control) or a certain number of employees who are subordinate to him. In this case, the distribution of tasks is carried out not at the same level, but “from top to bottom” - from workers occupying higher positions to workers at the bottom of the hierarchy.

At the same time, the higher the position occupied by the employee, the more general tasks he decides; the lower the position of the worker in the hierarchy, the more private are the goals facing him. This is completely natural, since the most significant decisions from the point of view of functioning are made at the very “top”, that is, the management of the enterprise.

With a horizontal division of labor, specialists are distributed among various functional areas and they are entrusted with the performance of tasks that are important from the point of view of this functional area. A striking example of the horizontal division of labor is conveyor production, when each of the workers performs a separate operation and is at the same level of the hierarchy as other workers involved in the production of the same product.

The allocation of functional areas of the organization directly depends on the division of labor. Functional areas are the types of work performed by employees of an organization, its divisions or the organization as a whole.

The functional areas are:

1) marketing,
2) finance,
3) personnel management,
4) innovation,
5) production.

In addition, security is sometimes singled out as a special functional area. Typically, a functional area corresponds to a subdivision that ensures its normal functioning.

The existence of functional areas is a perfect example of a horizontal division of labor. The division of labor is also associated with technology - the connection between individual types of work. In this case, technologies, of course, do not mean scientific and technical development, but a way of organizing the production process. If the concept of the division of labor involves the isolation, differentiation of individual functional areas, then the concept of technology, on the contrary, is associated with their unification, integration.

Let's take a simple example. The production department cannot operate if the enterprise does not have the materials necessary for the manufacture of goods. Although the production department solves tasks that are different from the tasks of the supply department, both departments are connected within the same process, since the activities of one of them depend on the activities of the other.

There are four main types of technologies:

1) within the framework of sequential technology, different types of work are strictly ordered: some work turns out to be impossible if others are not completed. The example of the dependence of the production department on the purchasing department illustrates this type of technology well;
2) related technology involves the interconnection of works, but without determining their clear sequence. For example, an employee of an organization prepares an agreement with another organization for the purchase of raw materials and must coordinate this agreement with a director, lawyer, chief accountant. In what order this will be done is usually not so significant, it is important that all the necessary officials participate in this process;
3) with emerging technology, all works are aimed at achieving one goal, but are isolated from each other. The main goal of the activity is achieved only at the last stage, for example, at the assembly stage;
4) group technology implies the presence of a single object, which is consistently affected by different specialists. An example here is the construction of a house: first, the builders erect its walls, then the house is brought to its final form by carpenters, painters, electricians, plumbers.

The organizational structure of management is understood as a special form that is taken in the organization by the distribution of functions between its components (divisions and individual employees). Every organization has goals on which its survival and prosperity depend, and, therefore, each of its components must somehow contribute to the achievement of these goals. This is exactly what the organizational structure should provide, which makes the organization a holistic organism, linking its “head” (top management), “arms” and “legs” (divisions and functional areas).

Organizational order is a set of norms and rules that employees and departments of an organization obey in solving their tasks. These norms and rules are usually either fixed in writing, or simply implied, unconditionally accepted by all members of the organization. Thanks to them, top management has the opportunity not to interfere in the current decision-making process: since there are rules and regulations, ordinary employees can make decisions on their own.

Any organization has rules and standards that must be followed by the behavior of its members. For example, members of an organization such as a party must pay membership fees, participate in events organized by the party, strive to popularize the ideas that this party seeks to implement. A member of an organization such as a firm must fulfill the duties that are assigned to him, observe the work schedule of the firm, clearly observe the boundaries of his powers and be responsible for actions that caused damage to the organization.

These rules and standards are relatively stable and unchanging. Naturally, real work experience sometimes shows that current rules and the standards are unreasonable or ineffective, as they reduce the effectiveness of its activities. Therefore, the organization seeks to adapt to what was not taken into account from the very beginning, and introduces new, more correct standards.

But even with such changes, the existence of rules and standards of activity is mandatory. Violation of the rules and standards in force in the organization usually entails punishment: a reprimand, a fine, or even exclusion (dismissal) from the organization. This is a manifestation of social control that exists in any associations of people. If a person harms the association, he is punished, thereby seeking from him such behavior that would not interfere with other people.

The rules and standards by which the organization lives are not always fixed in writing in the form of job descriptions, orders, orders and regulations. If the organization exists for a long time, then it develops forms of interaction that reflect the individual characteristics of employees and management, as well as special values ​​and traditions.

All this is usually called organizational (corporate) culture. For example, in one organization, employees may celebrate their birthdays with the team, while in another there may not be such a tradition; in one organization, profit-making may be the main goal, and its achievement will outweigh the moral values ​​accepted in society, while in another organization it is customary to take into account the interests of society and other people and not seek profit at any cost.

Vertical division of labor

This type of division of labor of managers reflects the hierarchy of building the management structure and is fundamental for modern organizations.

Top-level managers (top managers) are people who occupy key positions in the organization: owner-managers, the general director or president, members of the board of directors and the organization's management apparatus as a whole (central headquarters). Their main task is to provide an optimal system of relationships with the external environment, in which the organization can successfully operate and compete. Therefore, the main thing in the activity of top managers is the development of a long-term development strategy, which sets the goals and objectives of the organization, the resources necessary to achieve them, and ways to advance in the market.

Top-level managers are empowered to solve the main problems of the functioning and development of the organization (such as, for example, large investments in a new production process, a merger with another firm, the closure of a branch, the development of a new product, etc.). Their activities are characterized by scale and complexity, the priority of strategic and long-term development, the closest ties with the external environment, a variety of decisions made in conditions of great uncertainty and insufficient information.

Recently, there has been a tendency to reduce the number of top managers in the world. A survey of 89 multinational companies showed that 85% of them had at least one reorganization of their headquarters during the 1990s. In half of the cases, this led to the reduction of the central apparatus and the transfer of the released specialists to the middle level.

In a study conducted by the Ashrid Center strategic management(Great Britain), a difference in the approaches of companies to the role of their headquarters was established. This depends on the importance given to the three main functions performed by the top managers of the headquarters: firstly, maintaining and maintaining the integrity of the company, secondly, developing its policies and strategies, thirdly, expanding services that provide savings through volume growth. In different companies, they play a different role, and this fact has a significant impact on the size of the apparatus of top managers.

Influenced by changes in the economy and social development society, top-level managers change the priority areas of their activities.

Thus, a survey conducted in companies in 20 different countries showed that in the near future their efforts will be directed primarily to:

Formulation long term strategies development;
control by human resourses organizations;
marketing and sales;
negotiations and conflict resolution;
establishing relationships with other market participants.

Middle-level managers are management personnel who, in accordance with their name, perform a dual function, acting as an executor in relation to top-level management and playing a leadership role for first-level managers. Usually, the middle level includes managers who head structural divisions, divisions and departments of the organization, as well as occupying the positions of deputy heads, managers of marketing, production, sales departments, etc. In large organizations, there may be several levels of middle management, and this gives rise to the division of middle managers into several "layers". The top layer refers to those who direct the activities of the managers of the next lower layers in order to communicate to them the strategy and policies of the company's top management and assist in the management of operational activities. The middle managers at the very bottom work closely with the first level managers and executives.

Middle-level managers are the conductors of the organization's policy and at the same time provide direct control over the execution of processes and operations.

Some of the most important jobs they perform include:

Management and control over the progress of work;
making operational decisions;
transfer of information from top to bottom and from bottom to top;
work planning;
organization of work;
motivation of employees;
maintaining internal and external contacts;
making report.

In connection with the trend towards delegation of authority from the top level down, middle-level managers often have to solve the problems of developing policy for the development of departments; in addition, they bear a great responsibility for organizing the work of executors for the implementation of plans organizational change descending from above. At domestic enterprises, the role of middle managers has increased significantly due to the expansion of the rights of structural divisions of organizations.

In the 1980s, many foreign companies experienced a sharp decline in the number of middle managers, which was caused by a trend towards smaller organizations, the use of flat management structures and mass computerization, which led to a reduction in the amount of work performed by these managers. Some companies reported a two-fold reduction in their number, at the same time citing data on the resulting savings on wages and general expenses.

However, by the early 1990s, the opinion of specialists about the role of middle managers changed dramatically, and they began to be hired again. The reason was the processes of downsizing and restructuring of companies, during which independent business units with their own management apparatus stood out in their composition.

First-level managers (in the literature it is also customary to call them lower-level managers) are managerial personnel who are directly responsible for the work of performers, that is, employees of an organization that produce products or services. Managers of this level have in their subordination workers mainly performing work. Such a leader, for example, is a foreman, a shift or section supervisor, a team leader.

Management personnel and management of this level are in constant contact with the performers, communicate work plans to them, organize production and other processes, monitor execution, solve many different problems of the current and operational plans. In other words, managers of this level make mainly operational decisions related to the execution of tasks and the optimization of the use of resources allocated for this. Most often, their work is of a routine, repetitive nature: set operational tasks, draw up a work plan for the appropriate period of time, organize the work of performers, monitor the progress of its implementation, etc.

For performers, first-level managers are their direct superiors; they come into contact with other managers much less frequently, since almost all important issues are resolved at this level of management. The duties of managers include not only resolving the whole set of questions and tasks that arise here, but also analyzing operational situations and timely transfer of the most important information to the next, middle level for making decisions that are important for other subsystems or the organization as a whole.

The structure of the division of labor

The structural division of labor is built on the basis of such characteristics of the managed object as organizational structure, scale, areas of activity, industry or territorial specificity. Due to the wide variety of factors affecting the structural division of labor, it is specific to each organization. At the same time, some common features of specialization can be identified, primarily related to the vertical and horizontal division of labor of managers.

The vertical division of labor is built on the allocation of three levels of management - grassroots (first, or front-line management), middle and top.

The lower level includes managers who have in their subordination workers mainly performing work. They manage such primary units as brigades, shifts, sections.

The middle level includes managers responsible for the course of the production process in departments that consist of several primary formations (structural units); this also includes managers of staff and functional services of the enterprise management apparatus, its branches and departments, management of auxiliary and service industries, targeted programs and projects.

The highest level is the administration of the enterprise, which carries out the general strategic management of the organization as a whole, its production and economic complexes.

The actual number of levels in enterprises is highly variable and ranges from two in small enterprises to eight to ten in large associations and corporations. Accordingly, the content of tasks solved at different levels also changes. The common thing is that each of them provides for a certain amount of work on management functions. This is the horizontal division of labor of function managers. Functional structure work at each level is not the same. When moving from a lower level to a higher one, the number and complexity of tasks for drawing up plans and organizing the entire work of an enterprise increase, and the importance of the control function increases. At the grassroots and middle levels, managers are busy organizing the joint activities of people, so this function, along with motivation, becomes the most important.

A deeper horizontal division of labor of managers implies their specialization in key areas of activity that form the subsystems of the enterprise. The table shows an example of such a division of labor in an enterprise, which includes five subsystems: marketing, production, personnel, research and development, and finance.

Structural division of labor of managers in the organization:

Vertical division of labor by management levels	Horizontal division of labor by functional subsystems
	Marketing	Production	Staff		Finance
2. Medium

Note. At the intersection of the rows and columns of this matrix, the positions of managers who are specialists in one or another functional subsystem and related to a certain level of management can be represented.

Technological and vocational division of labor of managers takes into account the types and complexity of the work performed. According to these criteria, three categories of employees are distinguished in the administrative apparatus: managers, specialists and employees. From the point of view of the technology of the management process, the tasks of managers, first of all, come down to making decisions and organizing their practical implementation, specialists design and develop solutions, and employees are mainly engaged in information support of the entire process.

The complexity of managerial work is taken into account in the requirements that managers must meet when occupying certain positions.

In accordance with this, in the planning and accounting practice of our country, the following main positions of managerial personnel at enterprises were distinguished:

Heads and their deputies;
- chief specialists;
- engineers, technicians, mechanics;
- economists, engineers-economists;
- accounting and accounting staff;
- office staff;
- legal staff;
- other workers.

Managers constitute one of the most significant groups of managerial personnel, and their work is the most complex and responsible.

Social division of labor

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were still views like: "The more primitive the society, the greater the similarity between the individuals that make it up." Ulloa was often quoted: "He who has seen one native of America has seen them all." Durkheim argued that among civilized peoples, two individuals are distinguished from one another at first sight and without any prior acquaintance. The well-known anthropologist R. Levontin, already today, tells the following story: “Once in Egypt, in the lobby of a hotel, an unfamiliar man, an Egyptian, approached my wife, who began to discuss with her a matter completely unknown to her. She convinced him that they were seeing each other for the first time, and he finally, looking around, noticed another woman, for whom he mistook my wife. Needless to say, they had nothing in common with each other. He apologized for the mistake, closing with, “I beg your pardon, but you all look so alike.”

The point, it turns out, is not “civilization”, which until recently justified colonization, international exploitation of peoples, endowing some peoples with the nicknames “savages”, “primitive creatures” and appropriating by others the right to enslave peoples less adapted for military and economic expansions. All this is gradually fading into the past.

The ability to distinguish members of an unfamiliar group from each other is not just a matter of chance or training, and not only a matter of attention or desire. The true reasons are hidden deeper, in many ways they go into the subconscious of a person. In culture, there are archetypes of "one's own", they are fixed in consciousness and subconsciousness. These are original standards for the perception of reality, including people “not of their kind”. Selection occurs automatically, we see only what we “should” see, and only conscious efforts can overcome this archetype, which has already turned into a prejudice, a stereotype of education. XVII-XIX centuries have already formed another stereotype - European colonization at one time successfully “deprived” representatives of entire nations of the title of a person who has his own individuality, and, consequently, his rights and freedoms.

This example points to the most visible and socially formed part of the biological differences of people. However, a person must be considered not only externally, but also internally. Any person from his own experience knows about the huge internal difference of people. These differences are caused not only by one or another assimilated culture, but also by the abilities, limits of development, predispositions (callings) of people. The development and realization by people of their abilities proceed within the framework of a continuously developing social division of labor. The founder of sociology (“social physics”) O. Comte saw in the division of labor “the most essential condition of social life”. Since then, the theory of the division of labor has made significant progress, but here it will be necessary to present it only schematically.

There are several types of division of labor: physiological, technological, division of human labor, social and most importantly. Under the physiological division is understood the natural distribution of types of labor among the population by sex and age. The expressions "women's work", "men's work" speak for themselves. There are also areas of application of "child labour". The list of the latter is usually regulated by state law.

The technological division of labor is inherently infinite. Today in our country there are about 40 thousand specialties, the number of which is growing every year. In a general sense, the technological division of labor is the division of the general labor process aimed at the production of material, spiritual or social benefits into separate components due to the requirements of the product manufacturing technology.

The division of human labor means the division of the labor of many people into physical and mental - society can support people engaged in mental labor (doctors, scientists, teachers, clergy, etc.) only on the basis of increasing labor productivity in material production. In the mid 70s. 3 people working in material production in our country could support one employed in the field of mental labor. Knowledge work (development of technologies, education, training of workers and their upbringing) is an ever-expanding sphere. Thus, forecasts indicate that by the year 2000 in the USA only 10% of the active population will be employed in the field of material production.

The social division of labor is the distribution of types of labor (the results of the technological division of labor and the division of human labor) between social groups in society. To which group and how this or that life "share" falls in the form of this or that set of types of labor, and, consequently, living conditions - this question is answered by an analysis of the work of the mechanism of distribution of labor in society at a given time. Moreover, the very mechanism of such distribution continuously reproduces classes and social strata, functioning against the background of the objective movement of the technological division of labor.

What is this mechanism? In economically developed societies, such a mechanism is property, primarily private property. The possessing class (group) in one way or another concentrates in its hands those types of labor (activities) that provide management and organization in all spheres of the life of society: management of production, the state, education, mass communications, etc.

Returning to the above diagram of the IQ of the child, we establish that the decisive moment of its development is the socio-economic status of the parents. Thus, the development of abilities and the level of property are combined, the derivative of which is precisely the “socio-economic status of parents”.

But how to explain property within the framework of the theory of division of labor? For this, the term "main division of labor", first introduced into scientific circulation by A. Kurella, is used. This concept denotes the process of acquiring a value characteristic by labor, divided into past and living. All past labor, concentrating in itself in an objectified form the forces, knowledge, abilities, skills of workers, enters the sphere of possession, disposal and use of individuals or organizations (cooperatives, joint-stock companies, state) and acquires the status of property protected by the legal laws of the state. In this case, private property acts as a measure of the possession of the past labor of the whole society; its form, which brings surplus value, is called capital (financial, entrepreneurial). Living labor in the form of the capacity for it also appears as property, but in the form of labor power as a commodity. In contrast, "capital - labor" in a concentrated form, the class, group stratification of society is manifested, since the bearers of these opposites act as representatives of different classes - some manage, others work. Thus, in the history of society, power and property are intertwined, mutually developing and strengthening each other. The main division of labor (the split of labor) ensures the functioning of commodity-money relations as an operational mechanism for the distribution and payment of types of labor among members of society. This mechanism is derived from the forms of ownership that function in a particular society.

But how do relations develop between groups of people engaged in certain types of labor due to the constantly developing technological division of labor in society? E. Durkheim believed that the most striking consequence of the division of labor is not that it increases the productivity of the divided functions, but that it makes them solidary. The mechanism of solidarity in this case differs from the mechanism of solidarity caused by similarity (ethnic, sex and age, racial). Large societies can only be kept in balance by the specialization of knowledge; the division of labor is, if not the only, then at least the main source of social solidarity. This point of view was already supported by Comte, who saw in the division of labor something other than a purely economic phenomenon, and argued that “it is the continuous distribution of various human works that mainly constitutes social solidarity and becomes the elementary cause of the increasing complexity and volume of the social organism.”

These classics of sociology argued that the division of labor is also intended to integrate the social body, to ensure its unity. Time has made serious adjustments to this understanding. The class battles of the first half of the century showed that there are some reasons that completely undermine the form of solidarity in society that O. Comte and E. Durkheim described. The ideas of social equality, freedom and fraternity that underlay the French Revolution were replaced by their opposites in the 20th century: class clashes and the emergence of state socialism in the historical arena, two world wars, a series of national liberation wars, and racism that still exists make us go deeper peer into the problems of stratification of societies and peoples.

The category of "solidarity", which has a moral nature, can no longer satisfy the needs of the analysis of hostile relations between groups or peoples, sometimes spilling over into struggle, conflicts, wars. It gives way to its opposite - the category of "alienation". The latter is associated with the category of "activity" - the main form of human activity, which alone makes his life possible.

In the process of activity (in which the goal, means, result are different), the product of activity in the conditions of commodity-money relations is alienated to one degree or another from the producer - without this, an equivalent exchange of products is impossible under the conditions of the technological division of labor. The first stage of alienation in history appears - the producer's product is thrown into an anonymous area called the market (extraction), and is exchanged for money, which is the ideal side of the product. But the relationship between the begotten and the generative (creator) is not yet hostile: they are neutrally alien to each other.

The development of productive forces, and, consequently, the needs of people in society, leads to the gradual establishment of the dominance of past labor (in the form of money or real estate) over living labor, i.e. man. The product begins to command the creator. Bribery, deceit, corruption of officials, economic crimes, exploitation of man by man undermine the solidarity that the classics of sociology sang about. The class, which has concentrated the means of production in its hands, begins with their help to command the life and activities of people who represent the class of hired workers.

A new phase is beginning in the development of human alienation in history - a "hostile" alienation is developing between the haves and have-nots, members of the same society. Class antagonism leads to class struggle, which is permanently inherent in a society that develops spontaneously. But “it is necessary to go through this form containing opposites in exactly the same way as a person in his religious consciousness must oppose his spiritual forces to himself as independent forces. It is the process of alienating his own labor."

If the essence of economic alienation is a contradiction that has reached antagonism between capital and labor, then the essence of social alienation lies in the fact that a person’s life manifestations, satisfaction of his historically growing needs, freedom and self-actualization of his abilities are predetermined from the outside by the conditions of that class, group, ethnic group, in which he was born. The way of life, its level and way of life, and even the style of life activity (subculture) are limited by the limits and capabilities of the group, class. The accident of a person's birth as a "prince" or "beggar" predetermines his life. The mutual alienation of social groups is constantly fueled by the alienation of man from man - people, like classes, are separated by partitions in the form of property, the rights to which are protected by all the forces of the state. People are divided into masters and slaves, rich and poor. The motto of such a society is the slogan: "Money does not smell!".

Political alienation means that such a product of the interaction of people as the state becomes a means in the hands of the ruling group, the class, for the implementation of only their own interests and the forced maintenance of social inequality in society. All this gives rise to a natural feeling and awareness of the foreignness of such a state in the majority of the population, i.e. workers.

The economic and political types of alienation, once they have arisen, feed spiritual alienation. The essence of the latter lies in the development of various kinds of "smoke" screens in the form of fetishes, religious beliefs, protective ideologies between the consciousness of an individual, group, ethnic group and real life. Irrationalism, social deceit, manipulation of mass consciousness in the interests of the owners of the mass media, the authorities and the propertied class as a whole are a clear manifestation of spiritual alienation: in this case, the world consciousness and worldview of a person who either has not found himself or has lost himself in life arises.

The idea of ​​communism assumes that people will eventually build a classless society, not torn apart by class and national contradictions caused by the alienation of man in history, i.e. the dominance over him of the product of his Activity, therefore, the domination of man over man with the help of this product. Welfare and freedom, the comprehensive development of people's abilities, according to this plan, can only come in such a society. Is the idea of ​​him a social utopia? The collapse of the system of state socialism, I think, does not yet mean the illusory nature of the theory of alienation.

International division of labor of the country

The basis for the unification of national economies into a single world economy is the international division of labor (MRT), which is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products, which countries exchange with each other.

The international division of labor is an objective basis for the international exchange of goods, services, knowledge, the development of industrial, scientific, technical, commercial and other cooperation between all countries of the world, regardless of their economic development and the nature of the social system. The essence of MRI is to reduce production costs and maximize consumer satisfaction, and it is this that is the most important material prerequisite for establishing fruitful economic interaction between states on a global scale. MRI is the cementing basis of the world economy, allowing it to progress in its development, create prerequisites for a more complete manifestation of general (universal) economic laws, which gives grounds to talk about the existence of the world economy.

In the multilateral MRI system, the participation of any and every state in world economic relations is inevitable, regardless of the level of their economic development. The essence of the international, as well as social as a whole, division of labor is manifested in the dynamic unity of the two processes of production - its division and association. A single production process cannot but be divided into relatively independent, separate from each other phases, not concentrate on separate stages of production on certain territory, in selected countries. At the same time, it is also the unification of isolated industries and territorial production complexes, the establishment of interaction between the countries participating in the MRT system. The main content of the division of labor is the isolation (and specialization) of various types of labor activity, their complementarity and interaction. Thus, the division of labor is at the same time a way of combining labor. The need to increase labor productivity, which determines economic and social progress, is the driving force in the development of the division of labor. The main purpose of the implementation of MRT is to increase the efficiency of production, at the same time, it serves as a means of saving the cost of social labor and acts as a means of rationalizing social productive forces.

The international division of labor is an important stage in the development of the social territorial division of labor between countries, which is based on the economically advantageous specialization of the production of individual countries in certain types of products and leads to the mutual exchange of production results between them in certain quantitative and qualitative ratios. MRI plays an increasing role in the implementation of expanded production processes in the countries of the world, ensures the interconnection of these processes, forms the appropriate international proportions in the sectoral and territorial-country aspects. It is important to note that MRI, like the division of labor in general, does not exist without exchange, which occupies a special place in the internationalization of social production.

The main motive for MRI for all countries of the world, regardless of their social and economic differences, is their desire to obtain economic benefits from participation in MRI. Since the process of forming the value of any product does not depend on socio-economic conditions, and it is formed from the costs of the means of production, payment for the necessary labor and surplus value, then all goods entering the market, regardless of their origin, participate in the formation of international value, world prices. As you know, goods are exchanged in proportions that obey the laws of the world market, including the law of value. The realization of the advantages of MRI in the course of the international exchange of goods and services provides any country, under favorable conditions, with the difference between the international and national cost of exported goods and services, as well as saving domestic costs by abandoning the national production of goods and services due to cheaper imports. However, this is not the only incentive to participate in MRI, since, in addition to the above, the use of MRI allows us to search for solutions to global problems of mankind through the joint efforts of all countries of the world. The range of such problems is very wide: from environmental protection and solving the food problem on a planetary scale to space exploration.

Under the influence of MRI, trade relations between countries become more complicated and enriched, developing into a complex system of world economic relations, in which trade in its traditional sense, although it continues to occupy a leading place, is gradually losing its importance. The foreign economic sphere of the world economy nowadays has a complex structure, including international trade, international specialization and production cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation (STC), joint construction of enterprises and their subsequent operation on international conditions, international business organizations, various services and much more. What makes the productive forces worldwide is the international specialization and cooperation of production, manifested on a planetary scale. Under the influence of specialization and cooperation, an “additional” force is born, which is, as it were, gratuitous and acts simultaneously with the material and personal factors of social production. The results of the activity of each of the links of the emerging production system are actively used by an ever-increasing number of participants in cooperation, which ultimately leads to strengthening the integrity of this system.

Today, the modern world in economic terms is a certain expedient system, united by international socialized production, the achievement of a relatively high level of development. MRI is the “integrator” that has formed the global economic system- world economy. Being a function of the development of productive forces and production relations, MRI has created objective conditions for the growing interconnection and interdependence of the reproductive processes of all countries, and has expanded the limits of internationalization to global ones.

When considering the world economy as a system, one should also take into account the mutually beneficial economic communication between different countries generated by MRI, which is the driving force of this system. The commonality of economic relations, which gives them a worldwide character and global scale, consists in the coincidence of the objective needs for mutual economic communication and the deep economic interests of all countries.

In the 1980s and 1990s, large-scale economic, political, social processes enormous transformative power, which have had and continue to increase their impact on the world economy, its qualitative characteristics. Socio-political and economic processes cause significant shifts in the world economy, forming its new, more diverse and multivariate stages and ways of its development. Today it is quite difficult to draw a clear boundary, which quite recently divided it into opposite systems. In the world, especially in Europe, there has been a radical reshuffle of forces and a reassessment of values, thus, the provisions and stereotypes that have been formed in our country and abroad for decades regarding the problems of the world economy, MRI and international economic relations have become obsolete.

The most important problem of an interdependent world is not the cooperation of various systems, but the interaction of multi-level structures, which are characterized not only by the degree of development, but also by the degree of involvement in the MRI and the world economy. On the this stage development of the world economy, there is an active integration of capital, production, labor. A feature of this process is that it, having arisen initially in Europe (European Economic Community - EEC, CMEA), last years covered new countries and regions.

The integration of economic life in the world is proceeding in many increasingly multiplying directions. This:

Internationalization of productive forces through the widespread dissemination of the technological mode of production;
- manifestation of internationalization through MRI;
- an increase in the scale and a qualitative change in the nature of traditional international trade in embodied goods, due to which it now has an immeasurably greater impact on the internationalization of economic life than in the 20-30s of the current century;
- international movement of financial and production resources, ensuring the interweaving and interdependence of economic activities in different countries;
- an increasingly important area of ​​international cooperation is the service sector, which is developing faster than the sphere of material production;
- the international exchange of scientific and technical knowledge is growing rapidly. The front of world science and technology is rapidly expanding. In combination with their rapid development, this leads to the fact that now no country alone is able to solve all issues of scientific and technical progress, and even more so to be a leader in all areas of development of science and technology;
- the scale of international labor migration is increasing, to which Russia and other states on the territory of the former USSR are beginning to join as exporters;
- Simultaneously with the growing internationalization of the impact of production and consumption on the natural environment, there is a growing need for international cooperation aimed at solving the global problems of our time.

Thus, the modern world is rapidly moving towards a new, synthesized model of development, which is characterized not only by a qualitative renewal of the technological base of production, the widespread introduction of resources and energy-saving technologies, but also by fundamentally important shifts in the structure, content and nature of production and consumption processes.

Functional division of labor

The functional division of labor is determined not by the skills and skill of the worker, but by the division of the production process into its component parts, as a result of which the performers find themselves in an unequal relationship to this process: some directly affect the object of labor, others indirectly participate in the creation of products. In other words, the functional division of labor involves the division of the entire complex of works depending on the role (function) performed by the participants in the production process in the creation of products, and the separation of various types of labor activity according to the content and area of ​​performance of certain functions by the relevant groups of workers. The functional division of labor means that each category of workers consists of workers of different professions, within which they are divided into specialties (professional division of labor).

The profession characterizes a certain type of labor activity, a relatively permanent type of occupation that requires special theoretical knowledge and practical skills acquired by the employee as a result of training or in practice. An example would be the professions of a metallurgist, a turner, a locksmith.

A specialty, being a kind of profession, characterizes the type of labor activity within the profession, characterizing and limiting labor activity to a narrower range of jobs that require additional theoretical knowledge and practical skills acquired through specialized training or practical experience. For example, a generalist turner, a plumber, a foundry metallurgist.

The functional division of labor is carried out according to several classification criteria: by the field of labor activity (by profession), by the level of responsibility, by the level and profile of special training.

Depending on the scope of labor activity, all personnel (on the example of industry), in accordance with the accepted classification, are divided into employees of bodies government controlled(ministries, local authorities industry management) and industrial workers. Industrial workers are divided into industrial and production personnel and non-industrial personnel. Industrial and production personnel (PPP) are employees of the main activity. These include persons directly involved in the production of material values ​​or the provision of services, including administrative and technical personnel. Their participation in the activities of the enterprise is associated with the preparation, implementation of the entire cycle of manufacturing and selling products or providing services. Non-industrial personnel (employees of non-core activities) include persons who are completely unrelated to the core activities of the enterprise. They are employees of social institutions that are on the balance sheet this enterprise. A list of such institutions is given in the "Instructions for filling in organizations of information on the number of employees and the use of working hours in the forms of the Federal State statistical observation”, approved by the Decree of the State Statistics Committee of Russia No. 121.

Depending on the role and place of various groups of workers in the production process, as a result of the functional division of labor, industrial and production personnel are divided into the following categories engaged in the performance of functions similar in content: management apparatus, workers, students, junior service personnel and security.

Workers include persons engaged in the production of material values, maintenance of this process and the provision of material services.

The main (production) workers, i.e., workers who, by acting with tools on the object of labor, change its shape, size, properties, for example, a turner, a locksmith, a presser;
auxiliary workers, i.e. workers performing the functions of servicing and ensuring the normal course of the production process, for example, transport, warehouse, repair workers.

Division of managerial labor

The development of a rational system of division and cooperation of labor is one of the main areas of work on the OUT, as it has a decisive impact on other elements of the organization of labor. The division of managerial labor is the differentiation and isolation of various types of activities of managerial personnel. Cooperation of managerial labor is the joint participation of employees in one or related management processes.

Thanks to the division and cooperation of labor, the spheres of competence of individual workers, their rights, responsibilities are delimited, and a clear interaction of all of them in the management process is ensured. The division and cooperation of labor is a pair category.

They are rational if they satisfy the following requirements:

1. Ensure full use of working time.
2. Ensure the use of workers in accordance with their qualifications.
3. Prevent duplication in the work of various services and performers.
4. Ensure the responsibility of employees for the results of their work.
5. Ensure the release of the employee from the performance of duties that are not characteristic of his position.
6. Provide an opportunity for professional development.
7. Provide time alignment various works in the right amount, in order to fulfill these requirements, it is necessary to observe the proportion of functions and work between the performers.

The division of managerial labor is carried out according to three criteria, according to which the types of division of labor are distinguished:

1) The composition and content of the management function. In accordance with this feature, a functional division of labor is carried out.
2) Technological uniformity of work. In accordance with this feature, a technological division of labor is carried out.
3) The complexity of the work performed and the qualification characteristics of the positions of performers. In accordance with this feature, the qualification division of labor is carried out.

The functional division of managerial labor means the differentiation and isolation of groups of workers according to management functions. In any organization, there is a list of management functions. A wider range of them in industrial enterprises. As a result of the functional division of managerial labor, services, bureaus that specialize in performing certain management functions, i.e. the functional division of managerial labor is embodied in the organizational structure of the enterprise management. In the labor plan, it is embodied in determining the number of employees by structural divisions of the enterprise.

There are requirements for the construction of organizational management structures.

The principle of complexity and consistency implies the inclusion in the organizational structure of management of all units that perform management functions when establishing organizational relationships between them.

The principle of specialization provides for a clear delineation of management activities. At the same time, specialization should have reasonable limits. Excessive fragmentation of structural units should be avoided. Many structural divisions lead to the complexity of management and the appearance of excessive numbers.

The principle of stability of the organizational structure allows you to take advantage of the stability of the management system. The stability of the organizational structure must be combined with its flexibility in changing working conditions.

The requirement for an economical organizational structure involves the creation of a minimum number of links and levels of management. The decision to create or terminate the activities of any subdivision is recommended to be made based on the complexity of the work and the possibility of evaluating the work of the subdivision based on the final results of the activity. You can evaluate the results - the control link is necessary.

Two methods of forming organizational structures are used: normative and analytical.

The normative method involves the use of standard structures. The method is applicable to enterprises of small scale, without the specifics of production. In this case, use standard solutions on building an organizational structure: a typical list of tasks for individual management functions, typical conditions for the formation of units, typical diagrams of relationships between them.

The analytical method is more often used for unique enterprises, large in scale, when there are no analogues. The method involves the analysis of goals, objectives, management functions, their structuring, the choice of solutions from options based on the conditions of the enterprise. The method is rather labor intensive.

The technological division of managerial labor means the distribution of workers by type of work (operations) and assigning them to separate groups of workers and to individual performers (the latter prevails). With the help of the technological division of managerial labor, the specialization of workers is ensured.

The degree of differentiation of the technological division of labor can be different. Therefore, there are three forms of technological division of managerial labor: target form, subject, operational.

The target form involves assigning several tasks to the employee related to one goal. It is characteristic, first of all, for managers: an assignment to an employee of administrative work, organizational work, constructive work, management of any functional service, line management of a production unit, management of a temporary team, etc. The set of works depends on the object of management (sections, department, workshop, enterprise).

The subject form implies a greater differentiation of labor than the target form. An employee (or a group of employees) is given one or two tasks (usually homogeneous). Each of the tasks consists of a complex of analytical-constructive and formal-logical operations. It is typical most often for specialists, but sometimes applicable to technical performers. The subject form can be expressed by the field of activity. For example, process engineers specialize: some in foundry production, others in machining processes, others in assembly work, and so on. Economists specialize in planning, planning material resources, planning production costs, planning labor indicators, etc.

The operational form of the division of labor is the most differentiated. With this form, homogeneous operations are assigned to each employee: timesheets for the use of working time, copying documents, processing information, etc. The operational form of the division of labor is characteristic of technical performers.

The qualification division of managerial labor is the division of labor between employees, taking into account the complexity of the work performed and the position held. It is carried out within professional groups of workers. The normative basis for the qualification division of labor is qualification guide positions of managers, specialists and employees.

The requirement for the qualification division of labor is to ensure the fullest use of the employee in accordance with his qualifications. There should be no unusual qualification work. They will not exist or they will be minimal in time, when the enterprise establishes reasonable proportions between various qualification and job groups of workers (managers, engineers, technicians, technical performers) and reasonable proportions between specialists of different qualification categories.

Works according to the complexity of the specialists are grouped:

1. Particularly complex work, the performance of which requires knowledge in the specialty, the ability to navigate in related areas of science and technology, use best practices, and be able to find production reserves.
2. Work of high and increased complexity is a variety of work performed independently on the basis of the general instructions of the head. Their implementation requires professional knowledge and practical experience. Specialists performing particularly complex work, as well as work of high and increased complexity, are assigned 1 qualification category.
3. Works of medium complexity are works that are repeated within the limits of a regulated task, in which possible methods for solving the tasks facing the performer are determined, the necessary guidance and regulatory materials are indicated. Specialists performing mainly work of medium complexity are assigned the 2nd qualification category (for a number of engineering positions - the 3rd qualification category). 4. Works of a minimum level of complexity are the works of young specialists with higher education who do not have work experience, as well as the work of specialists with secondary specialized education, but with sufficient practical work experience.

When performing work of a minimum level of complexity, the category of qualification is not indicated.

To establish rational proportions between groups of workers, there are standards for the number of employees, standards for the ratio of the number of positions for job groups, for individual positions of employees. In the absence of standards or the impossibility of their application, rational relations between employees should be developed by the enterprise itself using the balance method.

The result of the joint action of all types of division of labor is the formation of a professional, official and qualification composition of workers and the establishment of specialization for each of them.

The type and form of the division of labor predetermines the corresponding form of cooperation. The functional division of labor necessitates the cooperation of labor between structural units. The technological division of labor necessitates the cooperation of labor between individual workers and departments. The qualification division of labor necessitates the cooperation of labor by individual workers within the unit.

Level of division of labor

The principle of social division of labor is used in all economic links, so there are six main levels of specialization. So intra-company division of labor involves its isolation within each enterprise - by sections, workshops, departments, professions, and so on. Specialization - by enterprises means that individual plants and factories concentrate on the production of certain products (for example, a dairy plant, a bakery, a furniture or textile factory, etc.).

The sectoral level of the division of labor (oil, coal, food, other industries) is supplemented by the division of the economy - by groups of industries into three very large areas: primary and secondary (which are interconnected by the "extraction - processing" technological chain), as well as an increasingly independent and rapidly growing service sector.

The next, already the fifth level of the social division of labor is territorial. It implies the specialization of economic activity in different regions and zones of the country, depending on the availability of resources, natural conditions, traditions of the local population, etc. For example, if we take Russian Federation, then our Western Siberia is focused on oil and gas production, the Krasnodar Territory - on growing grain, Novosibirsk, St. Petersburg, Moscow - mainly on research work.

Finally, the international division of labor presupposes specialization in certain production already of entire countries. Thus, Brazil and Colombia are major suppliers of coffee to the world market, South Africa - gold, Saudi Arabia - oil, Japan - cars, television equipment.

IN modern world in the context of growing globalization, only the most unreasonable states can adhere to an ineffective policy of autarky, that is, economic isolation, isolation from the rest of the world. Most of the countries are actively cooperating, rationally and mutually beneficial providing each other with the necessary products.

In addition to the considered levels of social division of labor, three main types of production specialization are distinguished in industry: subject, item-by-item and technological, or staged. They differ depending on what serves as the object of specialization: a finished product (item) completed by production, one of its parts, or a separate stage (stage) of the technological process.

In agriculture, in addition to the long-standing large divisions of labor (plant growing and animal husbandry), numerous small ramifications are added: grain, meat, dairy, vegetable growing and other specializations. At the same time, natural and climatic conditions, the need for alternation and rational combination of various types of production are taken into account.

§ 1 Cooperation and division of labor

Cooperation and division of labor are two directly opposite organizational relationships. If cooperation means bringing workers together for joint activities, then division means separating them into different types of work. In this regard, it is important to find out:

What are these opposites in the organization of production;

What economic benefit do they give;

How are opposite types of economic organization interconnected?

Why work together

The word "cooperation" has several meanings. Here it denotes a certain form of organizing the association of people in one or in different, but interconnected, labor processes.

labor cooperation- a form of organization of the joint work of a significant number of people.

First of all, it is important to see fundamental difference labor cooperation from property relations. As you know, the types of appropriation have repeatedly changed throughout economic history. Labor cooperation is used regardless of the prevailing social order at any given time. Meanwhile, in different historical epochs, labor interaction differs. unique features. It is one thing, for example, the collective cultivation of land in a primitive community, another is the forced labor of a mass of slaves in the construction of the famous pyramids in ancient Egypt.

The need to work together in any society is due to the following reasons:

For centuries, bringing people together to carry out certain economic activities has been a proven means for increasing labor productivity (increasing the output of workers);

In joint work, individual competitiveness of workers arises - their desire to complete the task better and in a shorter time;

Cooperation of labor increases the productivity of collective labor, which is able to quickly perform work that is beyond the strength of one person;

Cooperation saves working time due to the coordinated performance of collective work and the observance by workers of a single production discipline;

With the joint activity of many people, the costs of means of production are relatively (per unit of output) reduced (premises, equipment, raw materials are better used).

How effective is cooperative labor?

From what has been said about the need for labor cooperation, it would seem that a conclusion suggests itself about its high efficiency. But this conclusion can be challenged.

The fact is that instead of an unequivocal judgment, we are brought closer to the truth by multivariate parsing economic effect (output volume) obtained by changing the scale of labor cooperation. This effect depends on set of conditions: the nature and capacity of equipment, production technology, the distance of the enterprise from sources of raw materials, energy, consumers finished products and other technical, organizational and socio-economic relations.

In economic practice, it is important to calculate the economic effect obtained with different changes in the scale of production. In this case, three main versions of the effect can be obtained.

First option. With the expansion of the scale of cooperation (an increase in factors of production), the effect of its enlargement increases.

Here are some examples. In the middle of the XIX century. the largest ship could carry 2,000 tons of cargo, and now supertankers can carry over 1 million tons of oil.

Benefits of modern large-scale production linked to the use of complex and very expensive machine systems. So, in the automotive industry, the effective use of robotics and the most sophisticated equipment requires, according to some estimates, a production volume of 200 thousand to 400 thousand cars a year. Only large manufacturers can cope with this task.

As enterprises grow reduced unit costs, associated with the design, construction and development of products. Increasing the size of production creates additional opportunities for creating by-products. For example, a large meat processing plant makes glue, drugs, and many other products from the waste of the main workshops that are not processed at small plants.

Second option. There may be such a case when the number of employees increases at a larger enterprise. But at the same time, their productivity does not increase to the same extent. Then the effect of expanding labor cooperation remains unchanged.

Third option. An unlimited increase in the scale of labor cooperation can hinder the growth of production efficiency. Such a negative result is possible if the volume of output increases to a lesser extent compared to the expansion of the size of the enterprise. For example, the benefits of building a giant machine-building plant may be offset by the increased costs associated with transporting raw materials and finished products over long distances. It is almost impossible to manage such a plant from a single center, which will entail additional losses.

Finally, a question arises. What should be done in practice: to enlarge the scope of labor cooperation or not to enlarge it?

The answer to this question is facilitated by clarifying the relationship of cooperation with the division of labor.

Division of labor: what are its essence and forms

In the economy, the opposite process to cooperation takes place. division of labor - a qualitative division into separate and at the same time its coexisting species.

Division of labor– separation in the production process different types labor activity.

This process started natural division of labor by sex and age, which arose in primitive society. Until now, this division of activities has been preserved in many households.

IN modern production There are different types of division of labor.

1. Individual specialization- concentration of human activity on some special occupation, mastery certain profession, specialty.

2. The division of labor into enterprise(allocation in the labor collective of different types of work, operations).

3. Separation of creative activity on a scale industry, type of production(for example, power industry, oil production, automotive industry, etc.).

4. The division of production on a national scale into large births(industry, agriculture, etc.).

5. Territorial division of labor within the country (with the specialization of the production of certain products in different economic regions).

6. International division of labor (specialization of the production of individual countries on certain types of products that these countries exchange).

The division of labor always serves an important productivity booster creative activity of people. This is a consequence of the following circumstances:

Specialization of workers multiplies the skill involves the acquisition of more advanced knowledge and skills;

The division of labor ensures saving working time because by the concentration of labor efforts a person ceases to move from one occupation to another;

Labor specialization gives impetus to invention and application of machinery, which makes the production mass and highly efficient.

What is complex labor cooperation

As you know, the growth of the scale of labor cooperation in the performance of some homogeneous work increases the volume of output. But this effect is achieved only up to certain limits. Such limits are reached in enterprises with simple cooperation of labor, where all workers perform the same type of work (for example, lumberjacks at logging sites). If the size of the enterprise is infinitely expanded, then the costs of transporting raw materials and finished products over long distances will increase, which will exceed the benefits of building a giant enterprise.

The way out of this impasse is provided by complex labor cooperation.

Complex labor cooperation- a type of joint activity of workers of different professions and specialties.

This form of organization of creative activity in the best way combines the advantages of cooperation and division of labor.

Historical experience has convincingly shown the advantages of complex labor cooperation. The original form of capitalist enterprise was the simple co-operation of artisans who did the same work. In Western Europe in the XVI-XVII centuries. developed manufactory, where workers performed different types of operations or made some part of the final product (for example, some part of the watch - case, dial, hands, etc.). In manufacturing workshops, labor operations were simplified, tools were improved, and skilled workers were trained. All this contributed to a huge increase in the production of products.

In the XX century. the double effect inherent in complex labor cooperation was achieved through a combination of specialization and cooperation of production.

Production specialization - the form production organization based on the division of labor. It manifests itself in the creation of specialized workshops, sections and enterprises as a whole. At the same time, there are different types of specialization: a) subject(some product is being made); b) detailed(only a part of the finished product is created) and c) technological(certain operations are performed to process material resources).

Production cooperation - a form of production relations between independent specialized enterprises that jointly produce certain products.

Specialization and cooperation of production make it possible to find optimal(best) size of economic activity, taking into account all its favorable conditions. At the same time, it is important to take into account degree of specialization of enterprises(limitation of their activities to the manufacture of certain products and parts). So, in Russia, the manufacture of the same parts at large machine-building plants that produce all kinds of products requires 5-10 times more labor and Money and 1.5–2 times more metal than at enterprises with mass specialized production.

In the second half of the XX century. under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution began new stage in the development of specialization and co-operation of production not only in individual countries, but also on an international scale. Many of the most complex machines (airplanes, rockets, automobiles, etc.) are created in parts in different states and then assembled from components at the head enterprises of the country that produces these machines. More on this is discussed in Chap. 15, dedicated to the modern world economy.

The famous English economist Adam Smith described the work of ten workers in a pin manufactory: “... These ten people worked out over 48,000 pins a day ... one worker worked out 4,800 pins a day. But if they worked alone and independently of each other, and if they were not accustomed to this special work, then, undoubtedly, none of them could work twenty, and maybe even one pin a day.

Smith A. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776).

“We, along with the rest of the world, are woven into a complex web of economic relationships, the elements of which are trade in goods and services, multinational corporations, joint ventures and links between world financial markets… Many "American" goods are made from foreign components. For example, international firms supply key components for the new "American" Boeing 777 aircraft.

McConnell K, Bru S. Economics.

What knowledge should an expert have?

In the context of the further development of the scientific and technological revolution and the increasing use of information technologies, the importance of the work of specialists with secondary and higher education is increasing.

The training of specialists in foreign educational institutions is carried out in two directions.

The first is the training of specialists narrow profile (set of the main features of the activity). Such a specialist deeply masters a relatively small range of knowledge and skills, mainly related to the upcoming practical work. It has been noted that a professional is the more qualified and authoritative worker, the narrower the field of his activity.

However, one cannot fail to see that narrow specialization gives rise to serious shortcomings. Such specialization leads to one-sided development of the professional. His scientific and social horizons are sharply limited. He breaks away from his branch of scientific and economic activity and other related professions. At the same time, harmony is lost, comprehensiveness human development. Naturally, in the event of a job loss, a specialist with a narrow profile will not be able to quickly master an adjacent specialty.

Second direction implies training of specialists of a wide profile. This means a fairly broad scientific and professional education, as well as specialization in a chosen field of activity. Of course, such a professional is able, if necessary, to change his place of work within his specialty.

This difference in directions in the training of specialists reflects the contradictory nature of the development of the scientific and technological revolution. On the one hand, it caused a further deepening of the specialization of scientific research and production. On the other hand, modern scientific and technological progress has accelerated the interpenetration of different branches of science and technology, strengthened their relationship. This improves the quality and efficiency of scientists, specialists and other workers. Moreover, the strengthening of the creative nature of labor presupposes the harmony and comprehensiveness of human development.

In our country, state secondary specialized institutions that train generalists in 1960/61 had 104 students per 10,000 population, in 1990/91 - 148 and 2002/03 - 173 students.

It is noteworthy that the state educational standards of higher professional education, adopted in our country in 2000, provide for students to study: 1) general humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines (national history, cultural studies, political science, philosophy, economics, etc.); 2) general mathematical and natural science disciplines; 3) general professional disciplines; 4) disciplines of specialization.

Thus, all students receive broad professional training combined with a narrow specialization, which improves the quality of training professionals and their demand for practical activities.

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From the author's book

4. THE DIVISION OF LABOR WITHIN MANUFACTURE AND THE DIVISION OF LABOR WITHIN SOCIETY We have considered first the origin of manufacture, then its simple elements - the partial worker and his tool, - finally, its mechanism as a whole. Let us now briefly touch on the relationship between

Division of labor - this is the differentiation of the activities of people in the process of joint labor.

By the level of division of labor one can judge the development of the productive forces of society. The higher the degree of division of labor, the higher the level of development of productive forces.

There are three interrelated types of division of labor:

- general (within society, i.e. manifested in the delimitation of people's activities between large sectors of the economy, i.e. between industry, construction, agriculture, transport, etc.);

- private (within a separate branch of farming. In agriculture, this division of labor appears in the form of its differentiation by cattle breeding, pig breeding, horticulture, vegetable growing, etc.);

- singular (expresses the division of labor between workers within a separate enterprise).

General and private the division of labor is studied by other economic disciplines. The object of the NOT is singular division of labor.

Division of labor at the enterprise simultaneously produced in the following basic forms :

1. technological;

2. functional;

3. vocational qualification.

1. Technological division of labor is carried out on the basis of the division of the production process into stages (procurement, processing, assembly), redistributions, phases, partial technological processes and operations. The technological division of labor is associated with the division of labor according to the branches of the enterprise, the phases and stages of plant development, and the types of work.

Within the framework of the technological division of labor in relation to certain types of work, depending on the degree of differentiation of labor processes, it differs:

postoperative;

Detailed;

subject division of labor.

Operational division of labor provides for the distribution and consolidation of technological process operations for individual workers, the placement of workers, ensuring their rational employment and optimal loading of equipment.

Substantive division of labor provides for the assignment to a specific contractor of a set of works that allow the complete manufacture of the product (assembly of an electrical outlet, etc.).

Detailed division of labor involves the assignment to the contractor of the manufacture of the finished part of the product or part.

2. Functional division of labor provides for the separation of various types of labor activity and the performance of specific work by the relevant groups of workers specializing in the performance of production or other functions of various content and economic significance.

According to the functional division of labor, there is a division of all workers into:

- major engaged in the direct production of products or the performance of basic work;

- auxiliary who themselves do not directly produce marketable products, but provide with their labor the work of the main workers;

- serving who by their labor create the conditions for the productive work of both the main and auxiliary workers.

Managers, specialists and employees are divided into separate functional groups.

3. Vocational and qualification division of labor is carried out depending on the professional specialization and complexity of the work and involves the performance of work at the workplace within the framework of a particular profession and the qualifications of the workers. Based on the volume of each type of these works, it is possible to determine the need for workers by profession, qualification category and category, both for the enterprise as a whole and for its structural divisions.

In this regard, there are the boundaries of the division of labor :

1. technological

2. economic

3. psychophysiological

4. social.

1. Technological frontier division of labor is determined by the existing technology, which divides the production process into operations. lower bound the formation of the content of the operation is a labor technique, consisting of at least three labor actions, continuously following each other and having a specific purpose. upper bound division of labor will be the manufacture of the entire product at one workplace.

2. Economic frontier The division of labor is determined by the fact that the specialization of performers associated with the fragmentation of the labor process should ensure their full load during the work shift and contribute to an increase in labor productivity.

3. Psychophysiological border division of labor is determined by the allowable physical and psychological stress. The duration of operations should be within acceptable limits and contain a variety of labor techniques, the implementation of which ensures the alternation of loads on various organs and parts of the body of workers.

4. Social border the division of labor is determined by the minimum necessary variety of functions performed, which ensures the content and attractiveness of labor. The worker should not only see the results of his work, but also receive a certain moral satisfaction from it. Labor, which is a set of simple movements and actions, reduces interest in it. It does not contribute to the growth of labor productivity and skills of workers.

The division of labor is inextricably linked with its cooperation. The deeper the division of labor, the greater the importance of cooperation.

labor cooperation- the joint participation of people in one or different, unrelated labor processes.

The task of cooperation t ore - to ensure the greatest consistency between the actions of individual workers or groups of workers performing various labor functions.

There are two types of cooperation:

1. simple

2. complex

At simple cooperation there is no division of labor, work is carried out collectively and independently of each other. For example: lifting and moving heavy objects by hand.

Complex cooperation is the result of the division of labor. Each performer is assigned a specific function. Each of them is not capable of carrying out the labor process without cooperation with other workers, the works are interconnected and interdependent. For example: grain harvesting, when everyone performs his function (combine operator, driver, tractor driver, etc.).

Forms of labor cooperation:

1. intershop;

2. intrashop;

3. intradistrict.

Intershop cooperation associated with the division of the production process between shops and consists in the participation of teams of shops in the general labor process for the enterprise for the manufacture of products.

Intrashop cooperation consists in the interaction of individual structural divisions of workshops (sections, production lines).

Intradistrict cooperation consists in the interaction of individual workers in the process of joint labor or the organization of collective labor of workers united in brigades.

The role of cooperation in agriculture:

1. Gives you the opportunity to complete the work in a short time.

2. Helps to increase labor productivity.

3. Helps to overcome critical deadlines for many agricultural works.

4.Promotes more efficient use public means of production.

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR SCIENCE AND EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

KAZAN STATE TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER KIROV

Faculty of Management Economics and Law

Abstract on the topic:

"Division and cooperation of labor"

KAZAN2006

Introduction

1. Essence and meaning of the division of labor

2. Essence and forms of labor cooperation

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

primary

1. Essence and meaning of the division of labor

The formation of an effective system of labor organization largely depends on the organization of connections and relations that make up the subsystem of the division of labor, since the division of labor primary(backbone) element of the entire system of labor organization. The rest of the elements, including the cooperation of labor, are derived from the division of labor.

The division of labor according to the form of manifestation is divided into 2 types:

The first type is the division of social labor into various branches of labor;

The second type is the division of labor in the production of a commodity. Despite the difference, both types of division of labor develop in a single process through constant interaction and therefore have common characteristics. Each of the types includes types of division of labor.

The first type includes 2 types: general and particular; to the second type - a single division of labor.

General the division of labor is the process of separating various types of labor activity within the framework of the whole society, that is, the division of labor between various areas of activity and production: industry, agriculture, construction, communications, trade, production and non-production spheres.

Private the division of labor is the process of separating various types of labor activity both by industry, agriculture, and within them - by individual enterprises.

Within the industry, the private division of labor is characterized by the specialization of individual enterprises, associations in the production of certain types of products.

single the division of labor means the separation of various types of work within an organization, enterprise, within its certain structural divisions (workshop, section, department, management, team), as well as the distribution of work between individual workers.

Specific labor processes are carried out within a certain labor collective(organizations, enterprises), therefore, within the framework of a single division of labor, therefore, the direct object of the organization of labor in an enterprise are forms of a single division of labor.

The establishment of rational depth and forms of division and cooperation of labor helps to reduce labor costs, production costs, and increase labor productivity. These are, ultimately, the main economic goals pursued in the improvement of the division of labor.

The most important specific directions of the impact of the division of labor on the change in its costs:

Firstly, due to the division of labor, the employee has the opportunity to perform a limited number of functions, while performing them repeatedly, which leads to a reduction in the effort and time spent on operations, an increase in the quality of work;

Secondly, the division of the labor process into separate more or less small operations contributes to the development of a certain rhythm in work. Rhythm - this is a natural repetition of a set of any actions (movements), when the beginning and end of individual movements are always within the same boundaries in space and time. The significance of the development of a certain (optimal) rhythm in work is that the rhythm, being an element of mental motivation in work, contributes to the development of automatism in the performance of movements, in which the brain is freed from a large additional load, excessive stress, and the functions of the central nervous system are facilitated. Each person has his own individual rhythm of work, this must be taken into account when organizing work. At the same time, an employee can change the rhythm within certain limits, which is achieved during training, exercises, and this must also be taken into account when organizing work;

The third direction of the impact of the division of labor on the growth of its productivity is that constant quantitatively limited material factors participate in the labor process, that is, the same type of equipment, fixtures, tooling, and tools are used. At the same time, the tools and equipment are specialized - adapted to perform certain labor operations.

And, finally, with a fractional division of operations into its simple elements, the possibility of mechanizing its implementation increases,

All of the above points lead to the fact that the employee performs the work more carefully, efficiently, skillfully, spends less time and effort on this, therefore, works more productively and efficiently.

However, this raises the question of whether a further division of labor is always expedient and efficient? It turns out not. There are parameters, conditions that limit the expediency and effectiveness of deepening the division of labor.

1) Deepening the division of labor is effective with a sufficiently large volume of production of goods and services.

2) For the implementation of individual operations, a sufficient number and a certain composition of equipment is necessary so that it is enough for each operation, and taking into account the nature of the operations performed.

3) It is necessary to ensure a certain ratio between the number of employees and the number of allocated operations.

4) It is necessary to take into account the level of labor organization in auxiliary production areas: it must correspond to the level of labor organization in the main industries. As a rule, this level is lower in auxiliary areas. In this situation, a further division of labor may increase the gap in the levels of organization of labor between the main and auxiliary industries which, ultimately, will affect the quality of service, therefore, will have a downward effect on the effect obtained from the deepening of the division of labor.

Along with the conditions listed above, the boundaries of the division of labor are also distinguished. No matter how great the advantages of the division of labor are, its deepening has its limits, namely: technical, economic, psycho-physiological and social. The boundaries of the division of labor are the maximum allowable values ​​of the division of the labor process, within which the greatest labor efficiency is achieved.

technical border the division of labor associated with the technical capabilities of modern production has two meanings: upper and lower.

The lower technical limit is a labor technique consisting of at least three labor actions (for example, a move technique: take + move + put). This is explained by the fact that an operation cannot consist of one separate labor action, moreover, a labor movement. The upper technical limit is the processing of the entire object of labor. Economic frontier the division of labor is the comparative duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of certain products, or the specific cost of working time per unit of output before and after the deepening of the division of labor. The total cost of working time for the manufacture of products should be equal to or less than those that were under the previous organization of labor. That is, the total influence of factors that reduce the duration of the production cycle (product processing time) should be greater than the total influence of factors that increase this duration. If the duration of production cycles is equal, the variant of the division of labor is chosen, in which the share of operational work in the total cost of working time is greater.

Psychophysiological boundaries the division of labor is associated with the rapid emergence and growth of employee fatigue with excessive fragmentation of work, which results in the monotony of labor. Studies by physiologists and psychologists have shown that with the duration of production operations less than 30 seconds. the division of labor leads to an increase in worker fatigue and a decrease in labor productivity.

The psychophysiological boundaries of the division of labor are determined by the amount of physical and neuropsychic stress on the worker during the working day.

For physical activity, the lower limit is energy consumption in the amount of 2.5-3 kcal / min., The upper limit is 4.5-5 kcal / min.

For the neuropsychic load, the lower limit is limited by the following parameters: the number of productionally important objects of observation that determine the level of attention tension should be no more than 5; the duration of concentrated observation should not exceed 25% of shift time; the pace of work should not exceed 360 movements per hour.

For the upper limit, these parameters should not exceed, respectively, 25 objects of observation, 75% of the shift time for concentrated observation, 1080 movements per hour.

social border the division of labor is determined by the degree of content of labor, i.e. the number and variety of actions and techniques contained in the production operation. A rational division of labor should ensure that each performer performs operations that require creative activity.

In addition, if possible, there should be no excessively strict, rigid regulation of the sequence and methods of performing an operation within the framework of the current technology.

Division of labor, its forms and efficiency criteria. The organization of labor at the enterprise begins with its division, which, as an element of the organization of labor, is the separation of the types of activities of employees, the establishment of functions, duties, scope for each of them, as well as for their groups that form different units.

In different cases, at any production site, a standard task periodically arises related to the distribution of work between performers, with the placement of workers, with the definition of types of work for them. Similar tasks are solved in the design of labor processes. All this is called the division of labor in the enterprise.

Depending on the type and variety of work, the division of labor is distinguished: functional, professional, technological and qualification. In addition, the division of labor occurs on a "territorial" basis between large and between small units, as well as within units. All of the above division forms coexist, that is, they are present at the same time. It is difficult to unambiguously indicate the sequence of the implementation of the division of labor according to forms. Everything is determined by the characteristics of the activity, the type of work.

functional the division of labor involves the division of personnel into functionally homogeneous groups, each of which differs in its role in the implementation of the production process or activity. There may be several such groups. First of all, employees, workers, junior service personnel, students, and security are singled out. According to the classification adopted in our country, the category "employees" is divided into managers, specialists, and other employees, who are sometimes called technical executors.

Workers are divided into main and auxiliary. The former are directly involved in the production of those products that are core (basic) for the enterprise. The second perform work on the maintenance of the main production. We draw your attention to the fact that such a division does not mean that auxiliary workers are of secondary importance, or "second-rate" in comparison with the main ones, as the name might seem. Both are equally important for production. Auxiliary workers, in turn, are also divided into functional groups: repair workers, product quality controllers, workers engaged in energy, transport, economic and other types of services.

Junior service personnel include cleaners, janitors, cloakroom attendants, etc. In the functional group "security", guard, paramilitary, fire protection are distinguished.

With the functional division of labor, one of the problems is to justify the expediency of combining the functions of workers from different functional groups, for example, main and auxiliary workers. It is also necessary here to address the issues of substantiating the level of centralization and specialization of work for individual functional groups.

Professional division consists in the division of workers according to professions and specialties. Under profession refers to the type of activity (occupation) of a person who owns certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of professional training. Speciality- this is a kind of profession, its narrower part, the specialization of an employee within the profession. For example, the profession is a locksmith, and the specialty is a toolmaker, etc.

It should be noted that in the system of higher professional education, the state educational standards distinguish the following professional gradations: qualification, specialty and specialization. For example, the qualification is an economist, the specialty is labor economics, the specialization is the organization and regulation of labor. On the basis of the professional division of labor, the number of employees of different professions and specialties necessary for the enterprise is determined.

Technological the division of labor involves the placement of workers in stages, phases, types of work and production operations, depending on the production technology, on the content and features of the work. Here there are four types of division of labor: substantive, detailed, operational and by type of work.

In the substantive division of labor, the performer is assigned the performance of work related to the manufacture of the finished product. This kind of technological division of labor in modern production can be found in the assembly areas of simple products. The detailed division of labor is more common, it consists in assigning to the workers the manufacture of the finished part of the product - the part. The most common form of technological division of labor is operational division, when an employee performs only one or a few technological operations. Maybe the technological division of labor and by type of work, when none of the listed varieties of technological division is suitable, for example, welding work, painting works, etc.

The operational division of labor is associated with the emergence of a rather complex contradiction between labor productivity and its content. Historically, the process of development of material production proceeded from universal labor to specialized labor. These types of work have their positive and negative sides. Universal labor requires versatile skill from the worker, equal skill in performing different jobs. This, as a rule, is a meaningful, interesting, varied work, saturated with creative elements. With all these positive qualities, such labor is not distinguished by high productivity. The progress of production followed the path of specialization of labor, the separation of work by specialties, and within specialties - by type of work, which contributed to the growth of labor productivity and increased production efficiency. As production became more complex, to ensure the growth of labor productivity, more and more specialization was required, an ever narrower division of labor.

What are the advantages of specialized labor over general labor? There are several such advantages:

1. You can more successfully select a performer to perform work that requires certain individual qualities from him.

2. The term for preparing an employee to perform a limited range of duties is reduced.

3. The worker quickly achieves the skill, the necessary speed and accuracy of work.

4. Prerequisites are being created for a more complete mechanization and automation of labor.

5. Better opportunities are being created to improve the organization of the workplace, equipping it with specialized equipment and tools.

All this contributes to the growth of labor productivity. But as specialization deepens, due to the increasingly narrowing range of duties and work, the content of labor decreases, its monotony, monotony grows, work loses its attractiveness, and in the case of excessive specialization, the fundamental essence of human labor as rational labor is lost, the worker becomes, as it were, an appendage of the machine. , one of its parts. This can be observed in some workplaces in mass mass production on conveyor lines.

The transition of the rational border of specialization leads to the fact that the growth of labor productivity stops due to the accumulation of negative aspects of highly specialized labor: interest in work disappears, staff turnover increases, and this leads to additional costs for the selection and training of new employees, new employees need time to master responsibilities, some jobs are empty, etc.

Qualifying the division of labor is the distribution of work depending on their complexity among workers of different skill groups. The skill level of workers is established on the basis of assigning them qualification categories. The first category corresponds to the lowest level of qualification. There are six-, eight-digit and other tariff scales at enterprises. At enterprises public sector, i.e. those whose activities are financed from the state budget, a single 18-digit tariff scale has been established. The higher the rank, the higher the skill level of the employee. The level of qualification of managers and specialists is determined by the positions they hold. For specialists - engineers, designers, technologists - categorization is established, for example, designers of the 3rd, 2nd and 1st categories. Here the 1st category means a higher qualification than the 2nd, and even more so the 3rd.

To address issues of division of labor, the concepts of "division boundaries" and "division level" are used. Separation boundaries - these are the lower and upper limits, below and above which, respectively, the division of labor is unacceptable. Level separation- this is the accepted calculated or actually achieved value, characterizing the state of the division of labor.

There are the following boundaries of the division of labor: technical, economic, psycho-physiological and social.

The unit of division of labor is the production operation. But operations can be complex and simple. Lower technical the boundary of the division of labor will be a production operation, consisting of one labor method, as a set of labor actions and movements of an employee, continuously following one another and having a specific purpose. This is usually a simple elementary job. The upper technical boundary of the division will be the manufacture of the entire product at one workplace.

Lower economic The boundary of the division of labor will be such a division of the labor process, when the reduction in the cost of working time to perform an operation due to the deepening of specialization will be equalized, and then will be blocked by an increase in the time spent on transporting the object of labor from one workplace to another. The upper economic limit is determined by the duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of the entire product at one workplace.

Psychophysiological the boundaries of the division of labor are determined by the amount of physical and neuropsychic stress on the worker during the working day. For physical activity, the lower limit is energy consumption in the amount of 2.5-3 kcal / min., The upper limit is 4.5-5 kcal / min. For the neuropsychic load, the lower limit is limited by the following parameters: the number of productionally important objects of observation that determine the level of attention tension should be no more than 5; the duration of concentrated observation should not exceed 25% of shift time; the pace of work should not exceed 360 movements per hour. For the upper limit, these parameters should not exceed, respectively: 25 objects of observation, 75% of shift time for concentrated observation, 1080 movements per hour.

Social the boundaries of the division of labor are determined by the level of monotony of labor and staff turnover, the attitude of workers to work, the state of interpersonal relations. The monotony of labor is regulated by the duration of repeated homogeneous operations during the working day. The boundary value is the duration of such operations for at least 30 seconds, the frequency of repetition of heterogeneous elements of the operation must be at least five in 30 seconds. The attitude of workers to work is revealed through their surveys. The opinions of employees about the degree of satisfaction with work, according to the measurements accepted in sociology, can be in the range from 0.33 to 1.0. Staff turnover as a sociological boundary should not be higher than the industry average or the average for the group homogeneous enterprises. The level of social activity (participation in rationalization and inventive work, correspondence and evening education in the system of general and vocational education, advanced training, etc.), which is measured by the ratio of the number of employees participating in such forms of activity to the total number of staff, according to sociologists, should be in the range from 10 to 100%.

Interpersonal relationships are measured using the coefficients of psychological tension of relations (interval from 1 to 0), reciprocity (interval from 0 to 1), neutrality (interval from 1 to 0).

If the boundaries of the division of labor indicate the limits of acceptable decisions that should guide the organizers of labor and production in this area, then for a specific production situation it is important to find the best option, that is optimal level of division of labor, which is calculated based on the use of economic, psychophysiological and social criteria.

economic criteria the division of labor is: the cost of working time and material costs for the performance of work, the degree of use of the qualifications of workers, the duration of the production cycle for manufacturing a product, the level of labor productivity, production costs, and the profit of the enterprise. The economic direction of improving the division of labor is to achieve savings in labor and material costs, which, in turn, leads to a reduction in production costs and an increase in the profit of the enterprise.

Guided by economic criteria, the leader in the division of labor should strive to use workers in accordance with their qualifications, i.e. so arrange the staff so that the level of qualification of each employee corresponds to the complexity of the work performed by him. It should minimize labor costs, material resources and, ultimately, production costs, as well as maximize labor productivity and profits of the enterprise.

Psychophysiological criteria division of labor serve as indicators of human performance, which depends on the sanitary and hygienic working conditions, on the severity and neuropsychic intensity of labor, on the distribution of physical loads on different organs and systems of a person, on the magnitude of the combination of physical loads with mental ones. In the division of labor, the variant of labor is chosen which ensures the maximum working capacity of a person and in the best way ensures the health of the worker.

social criteria the division of labor is the stability of the team, low staff turnover, high labor discipline, a good state of interpersonal relations between interacting workers, a high level of their social activity, satisfaction with the content and working conditions.

Establishing the optimal level of division of labor with such a large number of diverse criteria is a rather difficult task. Here it is important to decide where to start, which groups of criteria to give preference to. Decision 1 will be erroneous if only economic criteria are used. Most noteworthy is the experience of optimizing the division of labor, when calculations begin with the use of social, then psychophysiological, and only then economic criteria. With this approach, the best probability of satisfying the interests of individual employees, the primary unit and the enterprise as a whole is created.

The solution of such problems is carried out using mathematical methods, computers or personal computers. Guidelines"Application of mathematical methods and technical means in the study and design of NOT of workers" were developed by the Research Institute of Labor back in 1974. At present, the problem of software for solving such problems on personal computers for different categories of workers (employees and workers) of various branches of activity. The use of a PC will provide ample opportunities for calculating the optimal level of division of labor in any enterprise, in each firm.

2. Essence and forms of labor cooperation

The division of labor, leading to the separation of certain types of work and workers, necessitates the unification of the labor activity of all workers so that their joint efforts lead to the achievement of the ultimate goal of the organization. Such an association of individual performers, the establishment of relationships between them to achieve a common goal of production is called labor cooperation.

Cooperation of labor is, as it were, the second, integral side of the division of labor.

From a functional point of view, labor cooperation is the establishment of production links (in time and space) between various labor processes that have become isolated as a result of the division of labor, which ensures continuity, rhythm, and synchrony of production.

From an organizational point of view, labor cooperation is an association of workers for systematic joint participation in one or different, but interconnected labor processes.

Labor cooperation maintains consistency in the work of individual and collective performers, ensures the continuity of the production process, the rhythm of output, shortens the production cycle, allows better, more efficient use of the personnel of an enterprise or organization.

The scale of cooperation depends on:

The depth of the division of labor - the deeper the divisions of the ore, the wider its cooperation;

the level of technology;

existing technology;

Organizational type of production;

Forms of division of labor;

Forms of organization of production.

The task of introducing rational forms of labor cooperation at the enterprise is to establish and maintain the optimal proportionality of certain types of specialized labor, to establish rational production relations between employees.

At enterprises and organizations, labor cooperation is carried out in the following forms:

Between workshops (inter-shop form of labor cooperation);

Between different sections within the workshops (intra-shop or inter-sectional labor cooperation);

Between performers (in the form of intra-divisional and intra-team labor cooperation).

If the organization has a different structural division, the forms of labor cooperation are named in accordance with this structural division.

At interdepartmental labor cooperation specific, systematic production links are established between the shops involved in the creation of the finished product. Production links between workshops depend on the principle of building specialized workshops. Labor cooperation can be technological or substantive, depending on the principle by which the workshops are organized. At technological cooperation the products of this workshop are transferred to another workshop to perform work at the next stage of the technological process. In conditions subject cooperation the relationship between the shops are manifested at the final stage of the production process, when the shops transfer their products to the assembly or another shop, where the process for the production of this type of product is completed. This applies to cooperation between the shops of the main production.

The production links that exist between the main and auxiliary shops are that, based on the planned tasks of the main shops, the number and nature of the equipment, the number of employees, the auxiliary shops must ensure the normal functioning of the main shops.

The second of the above forms of cooperation - intrashop- consists in establishing production links between employees of specialized sections within a given workshop, if any. These links are established depending on the form of division of labor; like inter-shop, intra-shop cooperation of labor can act in the form technological, or subject labor cooperation.

Changes in the professional division of labor are also associated with scientific, technical and information progress, during which the differences between individual types of labor are erased and thereby the commonality of the scientific and technical foundations of many professions is expanding, so-called cross-cutting professions appear. The study of these basics allows you to partially or completely master other operations. This creates conditions for versatile creative activity, for expanding the scope of activities and forming workers of a wide profile. In the course of scientific and technological changes, economic and social progress, some professions disappear altogether, new professions appear, many old professions significantly change their content and name.

Important directions in the development of the division and cooperation of labor are the use of collective forms of labor organization, the combination of professions (functions) and positions, the expansion of service areas, multi-machine (multi-aggregate) service.

The essence of the combination of professions is that the employee, during the duration of the working day established by law, along with his main job, performs the additional work of another employee, usually classified as an adjacent profession. This leads to the complete release of workers who previously worked in a combined profession (if the combination is carried out constantly).

When combining functions, the employee, while maintaining the previous profile of his work, partially performs the duties of another performer. Such a combination of functions is accompanied by a partial release of workers.

The expansion of service areas differs from the combination of professions in that in this case, work is combined within the same profession. By this measure, it is possible to achieve an improvement in the use of working time, the release of workers.

The combination of professions (functions), the expansion of service areas are caused by the need for a more rational use of working time, a fuller load of equipment, increased maneuverability in the use of personnel, and ensuring interchangeability. The combination of professions (functions) expands the production profile of an employee, contributes to an increase in professional and qualification mobility, the content of labor, and eliminates monotony in work.

The main conditions under which it is possible and economically justified to combine professions:

The presence of unused working time for employees, due to the production technology or the equipment used;

Common content of labor in combined professions, their technological and functional interdependence;

Territorial proximity of jobs;

Variation in the performance of combined functions;

no negative impact of combining work on the accuracy, quality and productivity of labor;

sufficient professional level of the employee or the possibility of its promotion.

Varieties of combining professions

I. By types of combined professions, works, functions:

combination of basic functions with the main ones;

combination of main functions with auxiliary ones;

combination of basic functions with equipment maintenance functions;

combination of a number of auxiliary (or serving) functions;

combination of auxiliary functions (or serving) with the main ones.

P. By the number of combined professions (specialties):

one profession (simple combination);

several professions (combined combination).

III. According to the degree of combination:

full (with the implementation of the entire scope of work in the combined profession); partial (with the performance of part of the functions of the combined profession).

IV. In order of combination:

parallel;

consistent.

V. According to the complexity of combined work compared to work in the main profession:

the lowest grade;

Similar category;

Higher rank.

VI. According to the stability of the combination:

Temporary;

Permanent.

The specific form of combination is chosen in specific production conditions, depending on the production technology, the composition and location of equipment, the forms and depth of the division of labor, the qualifications of workers, etc.

Work on the introduction of a combination of professions and functions is carried out in the following sequence:

1. Identification of conditions, prerequisites for combining professions, functions (analysis of the balance of working time).

2. The choice of objects for the implementation of the combination.

3. The choice of options (types) of combination.

4. Determination of new functions of the employee, the amount of combined work and workload of the employee.

5. Calculation of labor standards.

6. Designing the organization of labor for an employee combining professions and functions.

7. Development of the necessary organizational and technical activities.

8. Development of a combination incentive system.

9. Calculation of the expected economic efficiency.

10. Training (if necessary) for employees of a combined profession; employee briefing.

11. Introduction of combination.

12. Making the necessary changes during the implementation of the combination.

13. Calculation of the actual economic efficiency from the combination of professions, functions, assessment of the social effect.

When identifying the possibilities of combining professions, all types of work performed are examined, the actual balance of the working time of performers is analyzed.

Installed:

The composition of the main and auxiliary works;

Employment of each performer;

The degree of duplication of work;

The share of each type of work;

The share of time spent by auxiliary, serving workers;

The amount of free time, as well as loss of working time, their causes.

When determining the scope of work for the main and combined profession, it is necessary to take into account:

The volume of work in a combined profession should, as a rule, be less than in the main one;

The complexity of the combined work should have minimal fluctuations;

The combination should ensure the normal employment of workers, reducing the monotony and increasing the content of labor;

The expansion of the combination of professions is permissible up to a certain limit, which is due to the fatigue of the employee;

For workers employed in areas with unfavorable working conditions, one should choose such a combination of professions in which it is possible to reduce the impact of harmful factors;

Operations adopted for combination should not load the same body systems.

In the absence of regulatory materials, the scope of work can be determined on the basis of the FDD (photos of the working day) in such a way that the sum of the time of work in the main and combined professions and time for rest would correspond to the shift fund of working time.

To determine the specific possibility of combining professions, a given employee uses the coefficient of possible combination.

Along with the combination of professions and functions important direction development division and cooperation of labor, rational use of the total fund of working time and expansion of the work profile of performers is a multi-machine service.

Multi-machine (multi-unit) service is a service in which a worker (or team) simultaneously (during a work shift) services several machines (aggregates). Wherein manual work on some machines, the worker performs the work of other machines during the machine-automatic time. The main condition for the use of multi-machine maintenance is that the machine-automatic time of each machine must be greater than or equal to the time during which the worker is busy servicing all other machines.

In practice, the most widespread are 2 variants of multi-machine maintenance.

1) Maintenance of several backup machines, i.e. machines that are not connected by a common rhythm of work with other machines and work independently of each other, therefore, stopping one of them does not cause the others to stop.

2) Maintenance of machines connected by a common rhythm of work.

Considering the multi-machine maintenance option is important when determining the number of machines and when choosing a maintenance method.

When switching to multi-machine maintenance, the necessary preparatory work must be carried out.

1) It is necessary to check the fulfillment of the norms by the workers for a number of months and analyze the balance of working time and equipment operation in order to identify the amount of passive observation time, downtime, and the systematic implementation of the norms.

2) Determination of the optimal service area.

3) The choice of a rational functional division of labor between workers.

4) Selection of machines, taking into account the structure of operational time and uniformity in the methods of managing them.

5) Equipping the equipment with convenient control panels, devices, etc.

6) Rational placement (planning) of equipment at the workplace, development of convenient routes for the movement of a multi-machine operator from one machine to another.

7) Selection of appropriate parts (products) for processing under conditions s of multi-machine service.

8) Development of rational techniques and methods of labor, training of workers in them.

9) Determination of the most effective maintenance systems for a multi-machine workplace.

10) Calculation of the economic efficiency of the introduction of multi-machine maintenance.

11) Ensuring the material interest of workers in the transition to multi-machine maintenance and in achieving high results their labour.

The basis for calculating multi-machine maintenance is the duration and structure of the cycle of multi-machine work. Multi-Machine Service Cycle- this is the time during which all regularly recurring elements of operational work on the serviced machines are fully carried out.

The most widely used in industry are 3 methods of multi-machine maintenance: guard (duty), route and route-guard. With the guard method, the worker monitors the operation of all machines, approaches them when necessary. This method is possible when servicing a group of different types of technological equipment, backup machines, and is advisable when servicing a small number of machines.

With the route method, a multi-station bypasses objects along a certain route, stopping at those that require service. This method it is used everywhere - in the case of cyclic and non-cyclic operation, but with a large service area.

The route must meet the following requirements:

1. should be the shortest so that the worker returns as quickly as possible to the place from which he left (in order to quickly eliminate possible problems that have arisen during his absence);

2. ensure uniform maintenance of each machine, or section of the workplace;

3. be simple.

The route can be pendulum, ring (circular), return, cross-ring.

The route-guard service method combines the first two methods. Its use is advisable when servicing several machines, among which there are machines that perform single-pass operations with a long technological cycle, as well as machines that perform relatively short, but multi-pass operations. Then the maintenance of the first, with a long technological cycle, is carried out according to the route method, and the rest - as needed. The layout of the multi-station workplace should provide, along with the minimum time for the transitions of the worker from machine to machine, the following:

Free access to each machine;

Direct territorial connection of the working area with common aisles and driveways, but without crossing the working area;

Possibility of a free overview of all serviced equipment from any point of the bypass route.

Conclusion

Trends in changing the content and forms of the division and cooperation of labor associated with technical progress and the development on its basis of the organization of production and labor in enterprises are different and often contradictory.

Scientific and technological progress leads to the development and improvement of tools - machines, mechanisms, tools, to progressive changes in production technology. The more production is mechanized and automated, the farther away is the worker-executor from the object of labor and from its direct transformation. The functions of a worker are performed by a machine, automatic machine or appropriate equipment. At the same time, two somewhat contradictory tendencies appear: on the one hand, the labor process is facilitated, but at the same time, it requires a higher qualification of the worker for its implementation (knowledge of the machine, management skills, study of technology, etc.). On the other hand, the mechanization of labor processes is accompanied by a deep division of labor processes into small and insignificant labor operations, which leads to the monotony of labor. As a result, the employee's fatigue increases, interest in work is lost, and there is a desire to leave this place of work and change the scope of one's labor.

Within the framework of the functional division of labor, there is a change in the functional groups of workers: in general, the number of workers decreases with an increase in the number of employees, and among workers there is an outstripping growth in the share of auxiliary and service workers compared to the main ones.

Changes in the professional division of labor are also associated with scientific, technical and information progress, during which the differences between individual types of labor are erased and thereby the commonality of the scientific and technical foundations of many professions is expanding, so-called cross-cutting professions appear.

List of used literature

1. Rofe A.I. Organization of informing labor: Textbook for universities. - M .: Publishing house "MIK", 2003 - 368s.

2. Bychin V.B., Malinin S.V., Shubenkova E.V. Organization and regulation of labor. Textbook for universities / Ed. SOUTH. Odegova - 3rd ed. revised and additional - M .: Publishing house "Exam", 2005. - 464 p. (Series "Textbook for universities")

3. Zhukov A.L. Regulation and organization of wages: Tutorial. - M.: Publishing house "MIK", 2003. - 336 p.