Forms of international economic relations table. The main forms and system of international economic relations of the modern world economy

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INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY in Moscow.

(humanitarian)

KRASNODAR BRANCH.

Faculty of Economics.

Coursework in economic theory

on the topic: "The main forms of international economic relations"

Completed:

economics student

faculty group F-62

Larina Maria Sergeevna

scientific adviser

Lychak G.V.

Krasnodar 2007 .

Introduction

1. International economic relations

2. Main forms of international economic relations

2.1 world trade

2.2 International capital market

2.3 International labor migration

2.4 World monetary system

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The world economy and relations between the states of the planet are very dynamic and objectively develop in the direction of world economic development. It can be assumed that in the near future, international economic relations based on the global division of labor will also become a decisive factor in achieving the material well-being and spiritual growth of people in all countries.

No modern country can do without the development of foreign economic relations. In order to sufficiently fully satisfy social needs, it is necessary to rely expediently on the international division of labor and actively exchange goods and various kinds of services between countries. In principle, this is the relevance of the topic I have chosen.

The goal and objective of my course work is to clarify a particular problem of international economic relations in general, to consider these problems (the main forms: world trade, international capital market, international labor migration, world monetary system) from different points of view.

1. International economic relations

International economic relations (IER) are the connections of numerous economic entities of individual countries or their groups regarding the production and exchange on an international scale of various kinds of objects - goods, services, capital and labor. These relations are carried out in the process of participation of national enterprises and companies in the international division of labor (IDL). The implementation of the IER is also influenced by political, socio-economic, legal and other factors.

The mechanism for the implementation of international economic relations at the macro level includes organizational, legal norms and tools for their implementation (international economic treaties and agreements, international trade organizations, etc.), the relevant activities of international economic organizations aimed at achieving goals for the coordinated development of international economic relations.

International practice shows that modern international economic relations require significant, permanent supranational, interstate regulation.

The mechanism for the implementation of IER at the micro level includes a system of international marketing and organization and technology foreign economic activity. With all the external resemblance to general (internal) marketing international marketing is a specific tool for business management at the international level. Its specificity is manifested, first of all, in the methods of studying the characteristics of national markets, as well as world markets for certain goods and services.

The international division of labor is the objective basis for the international exchange of goods, services, knowledge, the development of industrial, scientific, technical, commercial and other cooperation between all countries of the world, regardless of their economic development and the nature of the social system. The essence of MRI is to reduce production costs and maximize customer satisfaction. It is MRI that is the most important material prerequisite for establishing fruitful economic cooperation between states on a global scale.

The international division of labor can be defined as an important stage in the development of the social territorial division of labor between countries, which is based on the economically advantageous specialization of the production of individual countries in certain types of products and leads to the mutual exchange of production results between them in certain quantitative and qualitative ratios. MRI plays an increasing role in the implementation of expanded production processes in the countries of the world, ensures the interconnection of these processes, forms the appropriate international proportions in the sectoral and territorial-country aspects.

In any socio-economic conditions, the value is formed from the costs of the means of production, payment for the necessary labor and surplus value, then all goods entering the market, regardless of their origin, participate in the formation of international value, world prices. Goods are exchanged in proportions that obey the laws of the world market, including the law of value. The realization of the advantages of MRI in the course of the international exchange of goods and services provides any country, under favorable conditions, with the difference between the international and national value of exported goods and services. Among the universal motives for participation in MRI, the use of its capabilities is the need to solve the global problems of mankind through the joint efforts of all countries of the world.

2 . The main forms of international economic relationseny

The main forms of MEO include:

· world trade (see point 2.1);

· the international capital market (see point 2.2);

· international labor migration (see point 2.3);

· the world monetary system (see point 2.4).

2.1 World trade(M.T)

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is world trade. Trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international economic relations.

For any country, the role of M.T. hard to overestimate. AT modern conditions active participation of the country in M.T. is associated with significant advantages: it allows more efficient use of the resources available in the country, to join the world achievements of science and technology, to carry out structural restructuring of its economy in a shorter time, and also to meet the needs of the population more fully and in a variety of ways.

In this regard, it is of considerable interest to study both theories that reveal the principles of the optimal participation of national economies in world trade, the factors of competitiveness of individual countries in the world market, and the objective patterns of development of M.T. M.T is a form of communication between producers different countries arising on the basis of MRI and expresses their mutual economic dependence. The following definition is often given in the literature: "World trade is the process of buying and selling between buyers, sellers and intermediaries in different countries." M.T includes exports and imports of goods, the ratio between which is called the trade balance. The UN statistical reference books provide data on the volume and dynamics of M.T. as the sum of the value of exports of all countries of the world.

Structural shifts taking place in the economies of countries under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation industrial production strengthen the interaction of national economies. This contributes to the activation of M.T. World trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to foreign trade studies, for every 10% increase in world production, there is a 16% increase in the volume of M.T. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When there are disruptions in trade, the development of production slows down. The term “foreign trade” refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

Diverse foreign trade activities are subdivided according to commodity specialization into trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.

World trade is called the paid cumulative trade between all countries of the world. However, the concept of world trade is also used in a narrower sense: for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of the countries of a continent, region, for example, the countries of Eastern Europe, etc.

It is in the interest of each country to specialize in the industry in which it has the greatest advantage or the least weakness, and for which the relative advantage is greatest.

The stable, sustainable growth of international trade was influenced by a number of factors:

1. development of the international division of labor and the internationalization of production;

2. Scientific and technological revolution, contributing to the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;

3. vigorous activity of transnational corporations in the world market;

4. regulation (liberalization) of international trade through the activities of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT);

5. liberalization of international trade.

6. development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones;

7. obtaining political independence of the former colonial countries. Allocation from their number of "new industrial countries" with a model of the economy focused on the external market.

According to available forecasts, high rates world trade will continue in the future: by 2003, the volume of world trade increased by 50% and exceeded 7 trillion. Doll.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has become noticeable. This affected the balance of power between countries in the world market. The dominance of the United States was shaken. In addition to Germany, exports of other Western European countries also grew at a noticeable pace. In the 1980s, Japan made a significant breakthrough in international trade. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to emerge as a leader in terms of competitiveness factors. In the same period, it was joined by the "new industrial countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States was once again taking a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. They are closely followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, as well as Japan, which previously held the first place for six years.

The growth rate of trade in raw materials lags markedly behind the overall growth rate of world trade. This lag is due to the development of substitutes for raw materials, more economical, deepening of its processing. Industrialized countries have almost completely captured the market for high technology products. The share of industrial exports of developing countries in the total world volume in the early 90s was 16.3%.

Types of world trade.

1. Wholesale.

2. Commodity exchanges.

3. Futures exchanges.

4. Stock exchanges.

5. Fair.

6. Currency trading.

1.Basic organizational form in the wholesale trade of countries with developed market economies - independent firms engaged in the actual trade. But with the penetration of industrial firms into the wholesale trade, they created their own trading apparatus. Such are the wholesale branches of industrial firms in the USA: wholesale offices engaged in information services various clients, and wholesale bases. Large German firms have their own supply departments, special bureaus or sales departments, wholesale warehouses. Industrial companies create subsidiaries to sell their products to firms and may have their own wholesale network. There are direct links between production and retail bypassing specialized wholesalers. Organizational structure wholesale trade in Japan has its own differences. It is based on trading houses that provide all stages of not only trade, but also the production of goods. They supply industrial enterprises with raw materials, sell their finished products, semi-finished products, coordinate the activities of related enterprises, participate in the development of new products, etc.

An important parameter in the wholesale trade is the ratio of universal and specialized wholesalers. The trend towards specialization can be considered universal (in specialized firms, labor productivity is much higher than in universal ones). Specialization goes to the subject (commodity) and functional (i.e., limitation of the functions performed by the wholesaler) feature.

2. There are several main types of commodity exchanges:

1. Open - accessible to everyone. They sell real goods, so sellers and buyers directly participate in transactions. Intermediaries between them are possible, but not required. The activity of such exchanges is poorly regulated.

2. Open exchanges of a mixed type, already with intermediaries - brokers acting at the expense of the client, and dealers acting at their own expense.

3. Closed - trading in real goods. On them, sellers and buyers are not entitled to enter the “exchange ring” and thereby directly contact each other.

Currently, exchanges of real goods have been preserved only in some countries and have insignificant turnover. They are usually a form of wholesale trade in local goods whose markets are characterized by a low concentration of production, marketing and consumption, or are created in developed countries in an attempt to protect national interests when exporting the most important goods for these countries. There are almost no exchanges of real goods left in the developed capitalist countries. But in certain periods, in the absence of other forms of organization of the market, exchanges of real goods can play a significant role.

3. The combination of elements of purchase, sale and credit in trade transactions and the interest of the merchant to get money as soon as possible for the largest possible part of the cost of the goods, regardless of its actual sale, were the most important factors in organizing a new type of exchange trading - futures.

Derivatives (futures) exchanges, where they trade not in goods, but in contracts for the supply of goods in the future. These can be closed derivatives exchanges, where only professionals directly trade and transactions of insurance of prices of contractual goods from the risk of their decline or, conversely, growth in the future prevail; open futures exchanges, where, in addition to professionals, sellers and buyers of contracts participate. Futures exchange trading is one of the most dynamic sectors of the capitalist economy. In modern conditions, it is futures trading that is the dominant form of exchange trading.

Futures exchanges allow not only to sell goods faster, but also to accelerate the return of advanced capital in cash in an amount that is as close as possible to the initially advanced capital plus the corresponding profit. In addition, the futures exchange provides savings in reserve funds that a businessman keeps in case of unfavorable conditions. In futures transactions, the full freedom of the parties is preserved only in relation to the price and limited in the choice of the delivery time of the goods; all other conditions are strictly regulated and do not depend on the will of the parties involved in the transaction. In this regard, futures exchanges are sometimes called the “price market” (that is, exchange values), in contrast to commodity markets (aggregate and unity), for example, real commodity exchanges, where the buyer and seller can agree on any terms of the contract. Exactly how does the price market meet the requirements of the exchange large-scale production at the highest stage of development of capitalism. The transformation of the exchange from the market of real goods into a kind of institution that serves and reduces the cost of trade and credit and financial transactions occurred as a result of increased concentration of sales, production and consumption of exchange goods (but while maintaining competition), the emergence and evolution of forms of financial capital. Currently, futures exchanges serve the needs of both small and large companies.

4. Securities are traded on international money markets, that is, on the stock exchanges of such large financial centers as New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt am Main, Tokyo, Zurich. Securities are traded during business hours on the stock exchange, or the so-called stock time. Only brokers (brokers) can act as sellers and buyers on the stock exchanges, who fulfill the orders of their clients, and for this they receive a certain percentage of the turnover. For trading in securities - stocks and bonds - there are so-called brokerage firms, or brokerage houses.

The exchange rate of shares and other securities depends solely on the relationship between supply and demand. The index of quotation (rates) of shares is an indicator of the prices of the most important shares on the exchanges. It usually includes stock prices of the largest enterprises.

5. One of the best ways to find contact between a producer and a consumer is through fairs, most often specialized ones, which allow the consumer to compare and choose the product that is most suitable for him in terms of consumer qualities and price, without spending huge efforts on finding information about the producers of the goods he needs. At thematic fairs, manufacturers exhibit their goods “in person” at the exhibition areas, and the consumer has the opportunity to choose, buy or order the goods he needs right on the spot. After all, the fair is a vast exhibition, where stands with goods and services are distributed according to topics, industries, destinations, etc. Therefore, anyone, having orientated on the topics of the exhibitions, can choose the one that will allow them to meet with manufacturers of interest to them. Accordingly, the manufacturer meets at the fair an audience that is interested in his product.

The role of fairs in the future will not decrease, but, on the contrary, will increase. So in Germany, fairs, as a rule, are held by organizing societies, for which this is their main activity. They belong to the state or communes, are independent of the participants and own the territory where the fairs are held. The largest of them have an annual turnover of 200 to 400 million marks.

In France, numerous industry exhibitions are organized by organizing societies, which in most cases do not have their own fairgrounds. Almost all such territories and buildings in Paris are administered or owned by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The vast majority of industry and specialized fairs are held in the French capital.

In the fair economy of Italy also a large number of exhibition organizers, which are either owned by industrial associations or are private. The largest fair company in Italy is the Milan Fair, which has no competitors in terms of its annual turnover. According to official figures, about 30 percent of Italy's foreign trade is carried out through fairs, including 18 percent through Milan. It has 20 representative offices abroad. The share of foreign exhibitors and visitors averages 18 percent. The Madrid Fair is predicted to have a very big future (on a European scale). This fair, leaving Barcelona behind, has taken the first place in the country and now has the best fair infrastructure.

6. The annual turnover of world trade is almost 20 billion dollars, and the daily turnover of currency exchanges is approximately 500 billion dollars. This means that 90 percent of all foreign exchange transactions are not directly related to trading operations and carried out by international banks. All this happens during the day.

Foreign exchange trading is understood as transactions for the sale of one currency for another or for the national currency at a rate predetermined by partners. The most important exchange rate is the dollar to the German mark. Banks that are ready to enter into foreign exchange transactions, call the rates at which they expect to buy or sell.

In addition to banks and large enterprises Brokers also take part in market operations. Brokers are only intermediaries and require a commission (courtage) for their services. Their firms are an important place for the exchange of all kinds of information. The foreign exchange market is the sum of telephone and teletype contacts between participants in foreign exchange trading.

2.2 Internationalth marketcaptainafishing

The market in which residents of different countries trade assets is called the international capital market (IRC). In fact, RTOs are not a single market - they are several closely interconnected markets where assets are exchanged on an international scale. International currency trading in the foreign exchange market is an important part of RTOs. The main actors in RTOs are the same as in the international currency market: commercial banks, large corporations, non-banking financial institutions, central banks and other government agencies. And like the foreign exchange market, RTOs operate within a network of global financial centers connected by complex communication systems. But the assets traded on RTOs, in addition to foreign currency bank deposits, also include shares and bonds of different countries.

When examining asset trading, it is often useful to distinguish between debt (bonds and bank deposits) and equity (stock) funds.

Structure of the international capital market:

1. Commercial banks. They play a central role in IRCs, not only because they set in motion the mechanism of international payments, but also because of the breadth of their scope. financial activities. Bank liabilities consist mainly of deposits with various terms, and assets are predominantly loans (to corporations and governments), deposits with other banks (interbank deposits), and bonds.

2. Corporations. It is a common practice for corporations, especially those of a multinational nature, to attract foreign sources of capital to finance their investments. To raise funds, corporations may sell blocks of shares that entitle the owners to a share of the corporation's assets, or they may resort to debt financing. Corporate bonds are often denominated in the currency of the financial centers where they are offered for sale.

3. non-banking financial institutions. Insurance companies, pension funds and mutual funds have become important participants in RTOs when they turn to foreign assets to diversify their portfolios. A particularly important role is played by investment banks, which are not banks at all, but specialize in subscription sales of corporate stocks and bonds.

4. Central banks and other government bodies. Typically, central banks are included in the global financial markets through foreign exchange intervention. In addition, it is not uncommon for other government entities to borrow funds from abroad.

With the current structure of RTOs, there is a risk of financial destabilization, which can only be reduced through close cooperation of bank controllers in many countries.

RTOs provide residents of different countries with the opportunity to diversify their portfolios by trading risky assets.

In addition, by ensuring the rapid dissemination of international information about the investment opportunities that exist in the world, the market can contribute to the distribution of world savings in the most productive way. Economic integration is a process of economic interaction between countries, leading to convergence of economic mechanisms, taking the form of interstate agreements and coordinated by interstate bodies.

Integration processes lead to the development of economic regionalism, as a result of which certain groups of countries create among themselves more favorable conditions for trade, and in some cases for interregional movement of factors of production, than for all other countries.

The preconditions for integration are as follows: · Similar levels of economic development and degree of market maturity of the integrating countries. With rare exceptions, interstate integration develops either between industrial countries or between developing countries.

2.3 Interatpopular labor migration

The world community, which until recently did not directly feel the size, features and consequences of migration processes at the international level, is faced with the need to coordinate the efforts of many countries to resolve acute situations and collective regulation migratory flows. The last decade of our century is characterized by the fact that the countries-importers and countries-exporters of labor resources are making significant adjustments to their migration policy.

Modern international labor migration is characterized by the activation and growth of the influence of countries - exporters of labor, which use various methods and means to achieve the goals of emigration. International labor migration is the process of moving labor resources from one country to another in order to find employment on more favorable terms than in the country of origin. In addition to economic motives, the process of international migration is also determined by political, ethnic, cultural, family and other considerations. Thus, the international migration of the labor force is part of a broad phenomenon - the international migration of the population, when this process is not directly related to employment.

International migrants fall into 3 main categories:

Immigrants and non-immigrants legally admitted to the country. For countries that traditionally accept immigrants, the 80s - 90s. were a period high level immigration;

Contract migrant workers. them by the end of the 90s. there were more than 25 million people in the world. Many countries depend on foreign labor.

· illegal immigrants. Their number in the late 90s. exceeded 30 million people. Almost all industrialized countries have illegal immigrants. Some of them cross the border, others remain in a foreign country with expired visas; they usually replace jobs at the bottom of the labor hierarchy.

According to rough estimates, the annual migration balance by the mid-90s was approximately 1 million people. According to forecasts, in the coming years, due to the stabilization of the world economy, the balance will decrease.

The volume of annual cash flows associated with international migration is measured in hundreds of billions of dollars and is quite comparable in scale with annual foreign direct investment (Table 1).

Developed countries account for approximately 9/10 of all labor income payments to non-resident foreign workers and 2/3 of all private unpaid remittances, while all developing countries account for only 1/10 and 1/3, respectively. As part of the cash flows associated with labor migration, workers' remittances account for about 62%, labor income - about 31% and the movement of migrants - about 7%.

Table 1. cash flows associated with labor migration (in billions of dollars)

The largest payments of labor income to non-resident individuals are made by Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Japan, Belgium, and the USA. In the developing world, South Africa, Israel, Malaysia, and Kuwait most actively use foreign labor. The largest transfers of a private nature are carried out in the main developed countries (USA, Germany, Japan, Great Britain) and in the newly industrialized countries and oil-producing countries (Korea, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela). The main recipients of transfers from abroad are developed countries, mainly due to the transfer of part of the salaries of employees of foreign divisions of TNCs, military personnel stationed abroad. In many developing countries, private transfers account for 25-50% of merchandise export earnings (Bangladesh, Jamaica, Malawi, Morocco, Pakistan, Portugal, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Turkey). In Jordan, Lesotho, Yemen, remittances reach 10 - 50% of GNP.

From a theoretical point of view, the income of a labor exporting country is far from being limited to the transfers of emigrants from abroad, although they make up the bulk of them. Among other incomes that increase aggregate GNP and favorably affect the balance of payments are taxes imposed on firms for employment abroad, direct and portfolio investments of emigrants in the economy home country, reducing the cost of education, health care and other social expenses that are covered for emigrants by other countries. Returning home, migrants are estimated to bring with them as much savings as they transferred through banks. Moreover, by acquiring work experience abroad and improving their skills, migrants bring this experience home, as a result of which the country receives additional qualified personnel for free.

Emigration has a very tangible positive impact on the economies of labor-surplus countries, since the departure of workers abroad reduces unemployment. Of course, one cannot deny the negative consequences of immigration, which in developed countries are associated primarily with a decrease as a result of the influx of immigrants. real wages unskilled labor force.

Practically all countries to which more than 25,000 people immigrate a year are highly developed states with a GNP of more than $6,900 per capita.

The process of internationalization of production that is actively taking place all over the world is accompanied by the internationalization of the workforce. Labor migration has become a part of international economic relations. Migration flows rush from some regions and countries to others. Giving rise to certain problems, labor migration provides undoubted advantages to countries that receive and supply labor.

The intensification of migration processes observed in recent decades is expressed both in quantitative indicators and in qualitative ones: the forms and directions of movement of labor flows are changing.

The world community, which until recently did not directly feel the dimensions, features and consequences of migration processes at the international level, is faced with the need to coordinate the efforts of many countries to resolve acute situations and collectively regulate migration flows.

Mass migration has become one of the characteristic phenomena of the life of the world community in the second half of the twentieth century. International (external) migration exists in various forms: labor, family, recreational, tourist, etc. The international labor market covers multidirectional flows of labor resources crossing national borders. The international labor market brings together national and regional labor markets. The international labor market exists in the form of labor migration.

Types of labor migration:

Distinguish internal labor migration occurring between regions of one state, and external migration affecting several countries.

-International labor migration originated many centuries ago and has undergone major changes since then.

In balance of payments statistics, indicators related to labor migration are part of the current account balance and are classified under three headings:

Earned income, payments to employees - salaries and other payments in cash or in kind received by non-resident individuals for work performed for and paid for by residents.

Workers' transfers are the transfer of money and goods by migrants to their relatives back home. In the case of shipment of goods, their estimated value is taken into account.

State regulation of the international labor market is carried out on the basis of the national legislation of the host countries and countries exporting labor, as well as on the basis of interstate and interdepartmental agreements between them. Regulation is carried out through the adoption of budget-funded programs aimed at limiting the influx of foreign labor (immigration) or encouraging immigrants to return to their homeland (re-emigration). Most host countries use a selective approach when regulating immigration. Screening of unwanted immigrants is carried out on the basis of requirements for qualifications, education, age, health status, on the basis of quantitative and geographical quotas, direct and indirect entry bans, temporary and other restrictions.

2.4 World monetary system

The world monetary system (MWS) is a historically established form of organization of international monetary relations, fixed by international agreements. MVS is a set of methods, tools and international bodies, with the help of which the payment and settlement turnover is carried out within the framework of the world economy. Its emergence and subsequent evolution reflect the objective development of the processes of internationalization of capital, requiring adequate conditions in the international monetary sphere. The form of organization of currency relations is the international monetary system (IMS). The MVS has gone through four stages in its development.

First stage - gold standard system, which spontaneously developed by the end of the nineteenth century. It is characterized by the following features:

a certain gold content of the currency unit;

the convertibility of each currency into gold both inside and outside the borders of an individual state;

maintaining a rigid ratio between the national gold reserve and the domestic money supply.

Second phase - gold standard system- was adopted at the Genoa Conference (1922). It was later recognized by most capitalist countries. Under the gold exchange standard, banknotes are exchanged not for gold, but for mottoes (banknotes, bills, checks) of other countries, which can then be exchanged for gold. The dollar and the pound sterling were chosen as the motto currencies.

Third stage - Bretton Woods Monetary System received its design in Bretton Woods (USA) in 1944. Its main features:

gold retained the function of final monetary settlements between countries;

The US dollar became the reserve currency. He, along with gold, was recognized as a measure of the value of the currency of different countries, as well as an international means of payment;

the dollar was exchanged for gold by central banks and government agencies of other countries in the US Treasury at a rate of $35 per 1 troy ounce (31.1 g.). The dollar has firmly taken its place in foreign exchange relations, the scale of the use of gold has fallen sharply;

each country had to maintain a stable (officially established) exchange rate of its currency against any other currency. Market fluctuations in the exchange rate should not deviate from fixed gold and dollar parities by more than 1%;

interstate regulation of currency relations was carried out mainly through the International Monetary Fund (IMF), created at the same Bretton Woods conference.

By the end of the 1960s, the Bretton Woods system came into conflict with the growing internationalization of the world economy. The regime of the gold-dollar standard gradually began to turn into a dollar standard system. Meanwhile, the crisis of the US economy in the 60s - 70s, the growing importance of the Western European and Japanese economies led to a large concentration of dollars in Western Europe and Japan, which the United States could not provide gold liquidity. In the early 1970s, the Bretton Woods system collapsed.

Fourth stage. In 1976, an IMF meeting was held in Kingston (Jamaica), at which the foundations of the new monetary system of the capitalist economy were determined, which was defined as managed floating exchange rate systemRowls.

We highlight the main features of this system.

The function of gold as a measure of the value of exchange rates was abolished.

The SDR (Special Drawing Rights - SDR) standard was introduced - special drawing rights - with the aim of turning it into the main reserve stock, a collective currency.

Currency relations between countries began to be based on floating rates of national currencies. Fluctuations in exchange rates were due to two main factors:

the purchasing power of currencies in the domestic markets of countries;

the ratio of supply and demand of national currencies in international markets.

According to the requirements of the IMF, member countries should not allow sharp fluctuations in exchange rates and, if necessary, regulate them. One of the tools is foreign exchange interventions of the Central Bank (purchase or sale of foreign currency on the currency exchange).

According to the IMF classification, a country can choose the following exchange rate regimes: fixed, floating and mixed.

Against the backdrop of numerous problems associated with fluctuations in exchange rates, the experience of functioning of the zone of stable exchange rates in Europe is of particular interest in the world, which allows the countries included in this currency group to develop sustainably, despite the problems arising in the IAM.

Thanks to the introduction of fixed exchange rates in Western Europe, the so-called phenomenon of the currency snake appeared. A currency snake, or a snake in a tunnel, is a curve that describes the joint fluctuations in the exchange rates of the countries of the European Community relative to other currencies that are not included in this currency grouping.

Measures of state influence on the value of the exchange rate:

Currency interventions;

Discount policy;

protective measures.

The exchange rate has a great impact on international economic relations. First, it allows the producers of a given country to compare the costs of producing goods with world market prices. Thus, it is one of the benchmarks in the implementation of foreign economic relations, allows you to predict the financial results of economic activity. Secondly, the level of the exchange rate directly affects the economic situation of the country, which is manifested, in particular, in the state of its balance of payments. Thirdly, the exchange rate affects the redistribution of the world's gross domestic product between countries.

In an undeveloped form, the exchange of one national currency for the currency of another country has existed for several centuries in the form of a money changer, but in a developed economy, the exchange of currencies takes place in the currency markets. At the end of the 20th century, the volume of daily currency trading exceeded 1.2 trillion. dollars. Of course, such a large volume cannot be explained only by the needs of international trade and investment flows. Great importance has currency speculation, that is, the desire to make a profit on a correctly guessed future movement of the exchange rate. Profit or loss can be hundreds of millions of dollars.

Conclusion

The world economy and relations between the states of the planet are very dynamic and objectively develop in the direction of world economic development. It can be assumed that in the near future international economic relations based on the global (European) division of labor will also become a decisive factor in achieving material well-being and spiritual growth of people in all countries.

International economic relations are carried out according to the laws of a single market between countries and are based on the global division of labor and the economic isolation of business and business partners.

No modern country can do without the development of foreign economic relations. In order to sufficiently fully satisfy social needs, it is necessary and expedient to rely on the international division of labor and actively exchange goods and various kinds of services between countries.

If we consider world trade in terms of its development trends, then on the one hand, there is a clear strengthening of international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, a deepening of the international division of labor, the gradation of countries into industrialized and backward. It is impossible not to notice the ever-increasing role of modern means of communication in the process of exchanging information and concluding transactions themselves. Trends towards the depersonalization and standardization of goods allow accelerating the process of concluding transactions and the circulation of capital.

Migration of the labor force is the relocation of the able-bodied population from one state to another for a period of more than a year, caused by economic and other reasons, and can take the form of emigration (departure) and immigration (entry). Migration of the labor force leads to equalization of wage levels in different countries. As a result of migration, the total volume of world production increases due to more efficient use of labor resources due to their cross-country redistribution.

List of used literature:

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5. World economy: Textbook for universities / edited by Professor I.P. Nikolaeva. - 2nd edition, revised and supplemented - M .: UNITI - DANA, 2003

6. Semenov K.A. International Economic Relations: A Course of Lectures. - M.:

"GUARDS", 1999

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8. Khalevinskaya E.D., Crozet I. World Economy: Textbook / edited by Khalevinskaya E.D. M.: Jurist, 2000

The main forms of international economic relations

International economic relations (IER) as a complex of economic relations linking the subjects of the world economy and based on the international division of labor have the following main forms.

1. International trade in goods, services, technologies, Represents the paid total turnover of goods, services, technologies between the countries of the world. The main trends include, firstly, the growth in the scale of international trade caused by the activities of transnational corporations.

portions, and secondly, qualitative changes due to the development of scientific, technical and intellectual activity.

2. International labor migration. Manifested in the movement of the population of working age in order to obtain work outside the country of residence during a certain time period.
3. International movement of capital. Associated with the migration of capital between countries, mainly entrepreneurial and loan capital.
4. International monetary and financial relations. In international practice, the order of international monetary and financial transactions between the subjects of the IEO has developed. It is determined by international agreements and is based on the development of money circulation and the international division of labor.
5. International economic integration. There are three groups among the types of integration: bilateral integration associations, multilateral and continental ones.
6. International cooperation in solving global problems. It manifests itself in the joint actions of the entire world community to overcome poverty and backwardness, solve environmental, demographic, food problems, maintain peace and combat terrorism, and promote human development.

Based on the sustainable development of international economic relations, a world market is being formed, which is a system of penetration of the economies of some countries into the national economy of others. The most significant features of the MEO include the following:

1) economic relations cover a significant territorial space that goes beyond national borders;
2) International economic relations involve additional resources in terms of volume and set of resources in world economic relations;
3) there is a movement of resources, factors of production and its results outside individual countries and integration groups on a global scale;
4) special mechanisms and instruments (financial, currency, customs, insurance, credit, etc.) operate in the International Economic Relations.

The forms of international economic relations will be considered in more detail in subsequent chapters.

World market and stages of its development

world economy is a set of flows of goods and flows of capital: human, financial, scientific and technical, in the global space. Its formation took place over several millennia, taking into account trade interests between various continents, countries, regions that constantly interacted with each other. To date, a complex system of international economic relations and interethnic economic mechanisms has developed, which determines the development trends of the world economy as an integral economic organism. The processes of division of labor, industrial revolutions, scientific and technological progress that took place in national economies went beyond their development and turned into links in a single world reproduction process, which ultimately led to radical changes in the productive forces throughout the world.

The economic interaction of countries, which began with the exchange of goods and services, is currently a complex of relations that includes not only trade, but also relations in the field of industrial cooperation based on the movement of capital. Mutual interest in constant economic contacts is typical not only for the traditional sphere of production, but also for the fields of information, R&D (scientific research and development), culture, science, education, and enlightenment.

The economic interaction of national economies is influenced by indirect factors, primarily political ones. The further development of mutually beneficial world economic ties, due to the vector of stability prevailing in modern politics, determines the centripetal trends in the development of the world economy. Examples of isolated economies, such as the DPRK, Cuba, countries that are not involved in the global process of division of labor, the movement of capital for political reasons, even more clearly emphasize the defining features of the modern world economy as a system of national economies of different countries, united by the international division of labor (MRT), trade and industrial, financial, scientific, technical and technological interrelations, including the strengthening of the internationalization of economic life, transnationalization and globalization.

Thus, the decisive role in the world economy of MRI, international commodity exchange, cooperation between countries, cooperation between the national markets of individual countries is clearly traced.

The world market as a set of national markets of individual countries, connected with each other by trade and economic relations, has a fundamental feature - the export of goods. Its content determines the export of factors of production precisely through the export of goods.

The main characteristic features of the world market:

it represents a category of commodity production that, in search of a market for its products, goes beyond the national framework;
manifests itself in the movement of goods between countries, while the goods are influenced by both domestic supply and demand, and external;
indicates to the manufacturer the regions or industries in which at a particular point in time the factors of production can be most effectively used, and optimizes these factors;
there is a special price system on the world market - world prices;
the world market controls the quality of goods, identifying goods in international exchange that, at competitive prices, do not meet international standards;
a commodity that is being exchanged on the world market serves as a source of information for determining the parameters of aggregate supply and aggregate demand, through which any of the participants in the IEO will be able to evaluate and optimize production parameters.

When evaluating the world market and its structure, four main points of the evolutionary development of its forms can be distinguished (Fig. 5.1). Firstly, it is the internal market, which is a form of economic turnover within the national economy. Secondly, the national market, which is the domestic market, but some of it is oriented to foreign buyers and sellers. The third form is the international market. This is the part of the national markets that is directly related to foreign markets. The largest form is the world market.

Rice. 5.1.

The rapid development of automation, electronics, telecommunications, biotechnology leads to the dynamic development of the structure of the world market. As a result, some parts of the structure of the world market are disintegrating, forming new directions. So, at the beginning of the XX century. in fact, a modern four-level structure of the world market was laid. By that time, the world market was two-tiered. The third level appeared towards the end of the 20th century. In the second half of the XX century. the top level of the world market, which had previously been solid, was divided into three tiers. This was the result of a new stage in the scientific and technological revolution. Thus, in connection with the development of nanotechnologies and the emergence of new areas of the world economy, and hence the world market, the structure of the world market in the future will undergo further changes and acquire new outlines.

Consider how the global market has evolved. The emergence of the beginnings of the world market occurred in ancient society. Commodity production, commodity circulation within individual countries was poorly developed. A small part of the production was sent to the foreign market. The level of trade between the countries of the ancient world and the Greek cities of the Mediterranean was insignificant.

In the Middle Ages, crafts developed in Europe, but commodity production did not become widespread due to the predominance of subsistence farming. The main condition for the formation of the market in those days was that the surplus of agricultural products and small handicraft enterprises entered into the exchange of goods, while the division of labor and production cooperation were completely absent. In addition, a characteristic feature of the international market was that the commodity exchange covered small areas due to the political disunity of the territories. Satisfaction of social needs occurred at the expense of domestic production. Trade relations between countries were irregular, and there was no national market at all.

The further development of commodity production led to the fact that even before the era of great geographical discoveries, the world market was transformed into an intercontinental one. By this time, medieval China traded with India and even with South Africa, and Venice traded not only with European countries, but also with Egypt and the Middle East.

The main features of the capitalist world market that appeared later were the separation of industry from agriculture and the emergence of capitalist enterprise, which led to the division of production into special branches, the predominance of commodity production in the economic sector and the expansion of the sphere of exchange.

In its development, the world capitalist market passed through three stages.

The first stage is preparation for the capitalist mode of production. At this stage, goods were produced mainly by small commodity producers and only partially by capitalist manufactories.

The second stage is the predominance of machine production. It covers the period from the industrial revolution in England at the end of the 18th century. until the end of the 70s. 19th century The development of industry, which led to the predominance of large-scale machine production, gave fairly developed features to world capitalist trade. The driving force behind the development of the world market at this stage was the British Empire with its colonies, which reigned supreme in the world economy.

In the 60s and 70s. 19th century the main features of the world market was the final establishment key role industrial capital. New capitalist powers moved to leadership positions: the USA, Germany.

The third stage is the formation of corporate capitalism. From the 80s of the XIX century. there is a transition from free competition capitalism to corporate, monopoly capitalism. On the this stage completes the formation of a total world market. The degree of its development characterizes the level of division of labor.

What are the main features of the modern world market? Firstly, economic relations between countries are motivated to maximize profits, the organization of production in some countries and in the world market as a whole takes place in conditions of fierce competition. The world market is actually divided by transnational corporations, the emergence of which was objectively due to the need for a global division of labor. In addition, an important feature is the deepening of old and the emergence of new international forms regulation of the world market.

At the present stage, periods of intensive development of the world market coincide with periods of economic recovery. The following factors contribute to the development of the global market:

strengthening of competition and the priority of technical perfection of products over the level of prices for them;
improving the quality of products, meeting the requirements of international regulators for marketable products on energy saving and environmental protection measures;
improvement of the marketing system, the emergence of new forms of sale of goods.

Despite the fact that the world market is based on national markets, it nevertheless has its own distinctive features.

The first difference is due to the fact that there are goods that circulate only within a certain country and do not enter the world market. The second difference is that the national market is influenced by production relations between enterprises of a given country, while the world market is influenced by foreign economic relations, as well as the foreign policy of the state. Thirdly, the movement of goods between countries faces various restrictions and barriers.

The integrity of the world economy is ensured by the fact that there is a system of international economic relations, the main of which are: international trade in goods and services, export of capital, international labor migration, international scientific and technical cooperation, international monetary relations, international economic integration.

The most important and historically the very first element in the system of world economic relations is international trade , which is a set of transactions for the exchange of goods and services between countries.

Among the main reasons causing international trade, one can single out the uneven distribution and provision of various countries with economic resources, the presence of different technologies in different countries. different levels efficiency.

Trade relations between countries are based on principle of comparative advantage . According to this principle, a country specializes in the production of those goods that it can make at a relatively lower cost compared to other countries. Thus, it is beneficial for each state to export abroad a product in the manufacture of which it has a comparative advantage, and to import from abroad a product that is produced in this country relatively less efficiently. It follows that international trade includes two interrelated processes: export , or export, and import , or import. The total value of exports and imports of goods and services forms a foreign trade turnover.

The real benefit (or real loss) that international trade brings is reflected in the country's balance of payments . Payment balance is the ratio of payments abroad (for imported goods and services) and receipts from abroad (for exported goods and services) for a certain period of time. If receipts exceed payments, then the country's balance of payments is active, if the difference between these payments and receipts is negative, then the balance is passive. The difference between receipts from abroad (the value of exports) and payments abroad (the value of imports) is called balance of payments .

The ratio between exports and imports is regulated by the state through a policy of protectionism and free trade. Protectionism is a policy aimed at protecting the national economy from foreign goods and restricting imports. Protectionist policy has the following directions:

organization of customs taxation, providing for high customs duties when importing finished products and lower - for export;

Establishment of non-tariff barriers, which include quoting (setting a certain quota, or share, for the export or import of certain goods), licensing (obtaining permission to carry out foreign economic activity) and state monopoly (establishment exclusive right government agencies for the implementation of certain types of foreign economic activity).

free trading, or free trade policy, is the opposite of protectionism. It is based on liberalization, the essence of which is that the state aims to open the domestic market for foreign goods and services in order to increase competition in the domestic market. At the same time, it is assumed that national enterprises will stand up in the competition.

AT real life modern states in their foreign economic policy combine both free trade and protectionism.

International trade is of great importance for the life of the world economy, which is as follows:

· with its help the limited national resource base is overcome;

· it expands the capacity of the domestic market and establishes links between the national market and the world market;

Thanks to it, additional income is obtained due to the difference in national and international production costs;

It promotes the expansion of the scale of production by attracting foreign resources.

In the international trade activities of the Republic of Belarus, several areas can be distinguished: the development of export opportunities and meeting the needs for imports; attraction of foreign investments and creation of joint ventures in order to introduce new technologies and produce new types of products; creation of additional jobs; mastering the production of products that are competitive in the world market; formation of extended credit relations with foreign governmental and non-governmental organizations.

The Republic of Belarus carries out foreign trade operations with more than 100 countries of the world and the list of these countries is constantly expanding. The main trading partners of Belarus are Russia and other CIS countries, Germany, Poland, USA, Hungary, Brazil, France. Among the main Belarusian exports are: mineral and nitrogen fertilizers, tractors, gas stoves, refrigerators, televisions, light industry products, fiberglass.

International economic organization that regulates trade relations between various countries, is World Trade Organization (WTO) . About 90% of world trade is regulated through the WTO. The purpose of the WTO is to establish fair conditions for competition between producers, reduce the level of import duties, eliminate non-tariff barriers, and expand international exchange.

The second form of international economic relations is export of capital , which is the export of capital by legal entities and individuals for the purpose of its more profitable placement or use.

Among the main reasons causing the movement of capital from one country to another, the following can be distinguished:

Over-accumulation of capital, that is, the formation of its relative excess in a country where it cannot find a highly profitable application;

· the opportunity for owners of capital to use in economically less developed countries relatively cheap compared to domestic factors of production (low wages, low prices for raw materials, water, energy);

· increased demand for capital in the countries where it is exported, which is ensured by the uneven development of the economy of various states. At the same time, in countries that are in need of foreign investment, more favorable conditions are created for this purpose: bank interest and dividends are increased, special benefits and guarantees are provided for the beneficial use of imported capital.

In this way, purpose of the export of capital is to obtain a higher rate of profit in another country due to the advantages associated with its use here in comparison with national economic conditions. There are two forms of export of capital: entrepreneurial and loan.

Entrepreneurial capital exported either to create own production abroad in the form of direct investment, or to invest in local companies in the form of portfolio investment. Direct investments actually provide full control over the objects of foreign investment. Emerging or acquired off-the-shelf enterprises become branches of the main firm located in another country, which forms the center of an international production association. Portfolio investment consist in the acquisition of shares of foreign enterprises in amounts that do not provide ownership or control over them. Such investments are made when they seek to place their funds in different sectors of the economy or when the legislation of the host country discourages direct investment.

Loan capital exported in the form of loans, or credits, bearing interest on loans.

The consequences of the export of capital for the country that imports capital are ambiguous. On the one hand, it contributes to the development of the economy of the country. On the other hand, foreign capital supports the profitable, one-sided, mainly raw materials, development of the national economy of the country where the capital is imported.

Based on the export of capital and the creation of enterprises in other countries, there is an internationalization and transnationalization of capital, the creation of transnational corporations (TNCs).

TNK is an enterprise that:

1. Has subsidiaries in two or more countries.

2. Has a decision-making system that allows the implementation of economic policy from one or more centers.

3. Provides such a connection subsidiaries that each of them influences the activities of others.

TNCs are significantly changing the structure of all world trade, largely subordinating it to their interests, because they are:

· technical leaders of world production;

· active competitors in the field of access to foreign natural resources;

· the most mobile entrepreneurs in the struggle for new markets, including foreign markets.

In the world economy, there are about 40 thousand TNCs with unlimited economic power. Among them are the following: American corporations EXXON (oil refining), IBM ( computer technology), Boeing (aircraft) and GENERAL MOTORS (automotive), the Anglo-Dutch corporation ROYAL-DUTCH-SHELL (oil refining), the Japanese HITACHI (electronics). TNCs control about 50% of world industrial production; 90% of the world market for wheat, corn, timber, tobacco; 85% of the copper and bauxite market. They own 80% of all world patents and licenses.

The modern export of capital is characterized by the following features:

1. In the growth of exports of productive capital with direct investment in the latest technologies.

2. In the export of capital, carried out mainly between highly developed countries.

3. In the growing role of developing countries as exporters of capital.

The next form of international economic relations is international labor migration . It represents the movement of the able-bodied population of the country outside its borders.

The main reasons for migration include:

· economic (decrease in demand for labor and growth in its supply, growth in demand for highly qualified specialists in developed countries, interstate differences in wages);

· foreign economic (demographic, political, religious, national, cultural, family, etc.).

There are the following types of international labor migration:

1. Permanent or irrevocable i.e. relocation with a change of residence.

2. Cyclic or periodic , that is, moving for a certain period with a return to the previous place of residence.

3. Pendulum, or shuttle , which is the regular movement of the population to work or study from one country to another and vice versa.

4. Adjustable based on the organized recruitment and regulation of specialists.

5. Unregulated , consisting in the independent movement of the population (family reunification, moving to a former place of residence after the end of the employment contract).

6. Legal carried out in accordance with applicable law.

7. illegal contrary to the current legislation.

8. Migration of low-skilled labor force , consisting in its movement from developing countries to industrialized ones.

9. Migration of highly skilled labor , or "brain drain", carried out as the departure of specialists to industrialized countries. Among its reasons are high wages, better working and living conditions, and social comfort.

A specialized agency of the United Nations, carrying out activities in the world labor market to solve the problems of labor migration, employment, conditions for organizing and remunerating work, vocational training, is International Labor Organization (ILO) .

international scientific and technical cooperation . It represents the participation of legal entities and individuals in the world's scientific developments in order to obtain new knowledge and use it in the economy and technology.

International scientific and technical cooperation takes the following forms:

1. Material, consisting in the exchange of high technology products.

2. Intangible, consisting in the exchange of drawings, descriptions, patents, licenses.

3. Provision of services in the form of exchange of specialists, technical staff, assistance in the field of management and marketing.

4. Commercial exchange of scientific and technical knowledge, which consists in the transfer of technology under licenses, engineering, consulting.

5. Non-commercial exchange of scientific and technical information, consisting in conducting international conferences and symposia.

6. Intercompany cooperation in the field of research and development, carried out in applied research and associated with the development and creation of prototypes of products.

The most important form of international economic relations are international monetary relations . This is a set of economic relations arising from the functioning of money in international circulation. Through currency relations, payment and settlement operations are carried out in the world economy. International monetary relations are carried out within the framework of international monetary system , which is a set of rules, laws and institutions that govern these relationships.

Her constituent elements are:

1. Main international means of payment (national currencies, gold, EURO).

2. The mechanism for establishing and maintaining exchange rates. Exchange rate is the price of the currency of one country expressed in terms of the currency of other countries. Exchange rates can be fixed or floating. If the state rigidly establishes the exchange rate between its national currency and foreign ones, then such an exchange rate is called fixed . The exchange rate, which changes under the influence of changes in the demand for this currency and its supply, is called floating exchange rate . Under a fixed regime, a depreciation of the exchange rate is called devaluation , and the increase revaluation . In conditions of floating exchange rates, similar processes are called depreciation and appreciation of the currency. The method of direct influence on the exchange rate is foreign exchange interventions - impact on the exchange rate of the national currency through the purchase and sale of foreign currency. So, in order to increase the exchange rate of the national currency, central bank sells foreign currency in exchange for national currency and, conversely, to reduce the exchange rate, buys foreign currency in exchange for national currency.

The state of the exchange rate is influenced by two groups of factors:

· structural factors reflecting the state of the economy of a given country. These include: indicators of economic growth (GDP, industrial output), the state of the balance of payments, the growth of the money supply in the domestic market, inflation and inflation expectations, the country's solvency and confidence in the national currency in the world market;

· market factors associated with changes in the situation in the sectors of the global financial market: speculative operations in the foreign exchange markets, the degree of development of the securities market competing with the foreign exchange market.

3. Conditions for currency convertibility. Currency Convertibility - this is a free exchange of the monetary unit of one country for the currency of other countries and for internationally recognized means of payment in various international settlements. Currency is considered convertible , if it meets three criteria: it is used without restrictions for any international payments, it is exchanged without restrictions for any other currency, this exchange made at a certain official rate. Distinguish between external and internal convertibility. Internal convertibility means that citizens and individuals of a given country can, without restrictions, buy foreign currency at the current rate, and make settlements in this currency with foreign partners. With external convertibility free exchange of any currencies for the national currency is valid only for foreign citizens and individuals. From the point of view of the convertibility mode, there are:

· free convertible currency (SLE), which has full external and internal convertibility;

· partially convertible currency , exchanging only for some foreign currencies;

· non-convertible currency , which includes the currencies of countries with strict prohibitions and restrictions on the import, exchange, sale and purchase of national or foreign currency.

4. Forms of international payments.

5. Mode of international currency markets and world gold markets.

6. International Monetary and Credit Organizations regulating currency relations at the interstate level. The most influential of them are: International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The content of their activities lies in the desire to create such a mechanism for coordinating world currency relations, which would combine market opportunities with government regulation. These organizations contribute to the development of international economic relations by establishing norms for regulating exchange rates and monitoring their observance, developing reforms to improve the world monetary system, providing credit resources to member countries of these international organizations, determining trends in the economic development of these countries and developing recommendations for their progressive orientation and development.

An important form of international economic relations is international economic integration , which is a process of economic and political association countries, allowing for a coordinated interstate economic policy. Economic integration provides a number of favorable conditions for the interaction of countries: wider access to various resources, the possibility of production based on the entire integrated grouping of countries, the creation of privileged conditions for their enterprises and firms, the harmony of the joint solution of social problems.

Among the forms of economic integration are the following:

· free trade zones , within which customs duties and other trade restrictions between participating countries are abolished;

· Customs Union which, in addition to the free trade zone, implies the establishment of a single foreign trade tariff and the implementation of a single foreign trade policy in relation to the countries that are part of it;

· payment union , which allows to ensure the mutual convertibility of currencies and the functioning of a single unit of account;

· Common Market providing its participants with a coordinated economic policy, freedom of movement of goods, capital and labor;

· economic union , providing for the coordination of macroeconomic policy and the unification of legislation in key areas - currency, budget, monetary, as well as the creation of interstate bodies with supranational functions;

· free economic zones (FEZ), which are distinguished by the absence of restrictions on the activities of foreign firms, the right to transfer their profits and capital to their country, as well as their infrastructural support.

The greatest development of international integration processes have received in Western Europe. Here, an example of the largest integration regional association can be considered European Union (EU) . The EU has established a free exchange of national currencies and created a European monetary system with its own mechanism for generating settlements and setting exchange rates. A collective currency unit (the euro) was established and became an international means of payment. In this integration association, numerous border and customs barriers separating the states have been overcome. All this led to a number of positive results, which include direct cost savings due to lower costs in the removal of trade and production barriers, gains from market consolidation and increased competition. Integration helped Western European capital in a number of ways. economic spheres on equal terms to confront its main competitors - the United States and Japan.

AT North America stands out North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) which includes the United States, Canada and Mexico. Among the 20 regional groupings of Asia and Latin America, one can single out Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA) , Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) .

A number of countries of the former USSR (Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine) formed in 1992. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). A distinctive feature of this integration association is the reintegration of countries that were previously part of a single state, on a new equal basis, corresponding to their current status.

In 1996, an agreement was adopted to establish Customs Union between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, as well as more advanced in terms of integration Commonwealth of Belarus and Russia , which in 1997 was transformed into Union of Belarus and Russia . In 1999, an agreement was signed to transform this entity into union state , the integration process within which continues to deepen.

In modern conditions, the trend towards an ever greater interdependence of national economies, towards an increase in the role external factors in the process of social reproduction in a particular country has become common. It follows that the concept of the world economy cannot be reduced to a simple sum of national economies. To no lesser extent, its essence is determined by the universal connection that ensures their real unity on the basis of the international division of labor, scientific, technical and industrial cooperation, international trade, currency and credit relations, that is, international economic relations.

International economic relations are a system of economic relations between different countries of the world. They are derived from national, economic relations, depend on them, are due to the peculiarities of the national economy and are significantly influenced by the foreign economic policy of the state. Thus, changes in the exchange rate of the national currency affect the competitiveness of goods in the market of another country, liberal tax law ensures the flow of capital to the country that implements it; changes in customs tariffs generate changes in the flow of exports and imports of goods.

The most important forms of international economic relations are international industrial and scientific and technical cooperation, the export of capital, world trade and technology transfer, labor migration, and international monetary relations. In this system, all its elements are closely connected, mutually intertwined and influence each other. So, international economic relations serve the interaction of national economies that are part of the world economy and thereby ensure its integrity, which is based on the global nature of modern productive forces.

International economic relations determine the essence of the world economy. By their nature, they depend on the economic relations functioning at the national levels. Thus, international value is formed on the basis of the formation of national values in accordance with the country's contribution to the global level of duration, intensity and productivity of labor and generally depends on the degree of inclusion of a certain national economy in the world economy.

The formation of the world market has led to the fact that the socially necessary working time, which is spent on the manufacture of any product, is determined not by the average level of skill and intensity of labor employed in the national economy, but by the current conditions of world production, which are normal at a certain level of development of the productive forces of the world community. As a result of the operation of the law of value, within the framework of the world market, the national values of the goods of different countries are reduced to international value. Countries whose national value of goods is lower than the international value receive additional profit in foreign trade during the exchange. And countries where the national value of goods is higher than the international value have no income and suffer losses. As a result, there is a washout from the national economy of those goods, as well as industries that are not able to successfully compete in the world market. A positive consequence of this process is that it leads to a deepening of the international division of labor and an increase in the efficiency of national production. The decisive role in determining the profile of a country's specialization in the production of certain goods is played not by the absolute value of the national value, but by its relative level, that is, in comparison with other countries producing similar products.

characteristic feature modern stage of development of the world economy is a certain modification of the ratio of national and international value under the influence of the process of internationalization of production. The latter contributes to the rationalization of the structure of the national economy, freeing it from unpromising industries. Under the influence of these processes, manufacturers of the world community are increasingly guided by international cost criteria. Therefore, for many countries in modern conditions there is no need to create the entire technological chain for the production of individual goods. After all, it is much more economically profitable to buy it in those countries where there is already a highly efficient production of such goods, or to acquire a license abroad that allows you to produce this product on your own. As a result, own natural, financial and labor resources are released for the development of those industries or types of production where it is possible to ensure the highest labor productivity and product quality. The deep specialization of individual countries in the production of those goods for which there are the most favorable conditions gives rise to an objective need for cooperative production, a broad mutual exchange of technologies and research developments, and the internationalization of economic ties. In the current conditions, these processes have a significant impact on new directions of the scientific and technological revolution, which is closely connected with international industrial and scientific and technical cooperation.

As a component of international economic relations, international industrial and scientific and technical cooperation is a complex of such constantly developing and deepening economic ties between individual countries, groups of countries, which are based on the principles of equality and mutual benefit of participants. International production and scientific and technical cooperation is an objective process of formation of stable and long-term international economic relations in the world economy.

The main forms of international industrial cooperation are international specialization and international cooperation. International specialization of production is its form, with the help of which there is a concentration of a certain production in individual countries and a regular supply of its world market.

Depending on the level of development of the international division of labor, the following forms of international specialization of production are distinguished; subject (on the release of completely finished and ready-to-use products); by detail (in the production of parts, assemblies, parts of products); technological (specialization in certain technological processes- assembly, painting, welding, stamping, etc.).

The functioning and development of international specialization of production creates, forms the conditions for international cooperation. International cooperation is a process of formation of stable production relations between enterprises of different countries, as a result of which joint activities are carried out to create elements of finished products. Implementation international cooperation provides for preliminary agreement by the parties in a contractual manner of the conditions for joint activities; distribution of tasks among partners within the framework of an agreed program; coordination of business activities of partner enterprises; duration, stability and regularity of relations.

International scientific and technical cooperation includes communications on the exchange of the results of research and experimental design work (R&D); joint research by enterprises, countries or organizations with subsequent joint or separate use of their results; joint development and use of scientific and technical regulations, requirements and standards; exchange of general scientific and technical information. International scientific and technical cooperation is based on a commercial basis and is the basis for the development of one of the most important and dynamic areas of international and economic relations generated in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution of the world information and knowledge market.

Among the significant number of forms of international scientific and technical cooperation, the main ones are:

Conclusion and implementation of contract agreements for research and development;

Joint carrying out on the basis of direct links of cooperative research works with subsequent joint ownership of a patent and the right to grant licenses;

Implementation of international scientific and technical programs with the participation of many countries and firms to develop important special problems (on telecommunications technology, biotechnology or integrated programs on modern information technologies). The last two types form the basis of the process of scientific and technological integration.

The priority areas for the development of international scientific and technical cooperation are electronization, automation and robotization production processes; use of atomic energy; the creation of new types of structural materials, the development of biotechnology, genetic and cell engineering, space exploration, the creation of industrial thermonuclear reactors, the study of the atmosphere, etc.

Important integral part international economic relations is the export of capital, carried out for the purpose of systematic appropriation of income in the country where it is exported, or in order to obtain other economic and political advantages. Unlike international trade, it provides income in the sphere of exchange, the export of capital is focused on its use in the sphere of production and the receipt of the corresponding income in this country.

The export or migration of capital outside the national economy is beneficial when there is an opportunity to get more profit in other countries than in one's own.

There are several reasons for the export of capital:

1) its relative abundance in exporting countries;

2) the impossibility of a profitable investment of capital within the limits of one's own national economy;

3) an increase in demand for free capital from countries that do not have enough of their own sources of its accumulation;

4) the possibility of obtaining additional income with the help of exported capital due to cheap raw materials, labor, the use of ready-made infrastructure, penetration into new markets.

Due to the uneven development of the structural links of the world economy, the demand and supply of capital, as a rule, do not coincide. Therefore, it includes countries that are interested in attracting capital to solve their socio-economic problems. To this end, they encourage its entry into the country by increasing bank interest and dividends, ensuring legal protection foreign investors and guarantees of profit.

International capital migration is traditionally divided into a number of forms, depending on the feature underlying the classification. The main forms of international capital outflow are shown in table 22.1.

Table 22.1 Classification of forms of international capital export

The export of loan capital is carried out by providing loans to states, consumers, and business. The form of such a movement of loan capital is an international loan. Unlike entrepreneurial capital, where its owner retains ownership of it and the ability to control its operation, the owner of loan capital retains only the ownership of the loaned capital. The right to use this form of capital passes to the importer.

The export of entrepreneurial capital is carried out through foreign investment.

According to the method of application, foreign investments are carried out in two forms:

Direct investment, which is invested primarily in shares of industrial, commercial and banking enterprises, ensures the ownership or some control of the investor over the activities of these enterprises. The advantage of direct investment is that the exporter has full control over his capital during the entire period of operation of these investments. Loan capital for the entire period of the loan is at the disposal of the importer. The main part of direct investments (approximately 3/4) falls on the developed countries of the world, and the rest (approximately 1/4) - on developing countries. It should also be pointed out that the exchange of direct investments between the developed countries of the world community is carried out on the basis of equality. And the export of capital to the countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America is accompanied by an increase in their economic and technological dependence on developed countries. Characteristically, the rate of return on direct investment in developing countries is twice as high as in developed ones.

The formation of controlled branches abroad with the help of the export of capital allows its owners to satisfy the need for raw materials or food products that are not available in their own country. The United States thus receives a large share of imported oil and petroleum products, chromium, nickel, manganese ores, lead, zinc, coffee, cocoa, tea, bananas and the like;

Portfolio investment is a financial transaction for the purchase of foreign securities for foreign currency. They arise when the number of shares of a foreign enterprise acquired through the export of capital does not provide full control over it, or if the owners of capital seek to place it in different industries. This form of investment is also carried out in the case when it is unprofitable to make direct investments under the terms of the current legislation of the countries and-im porter of capital. A variety of portfolio investment is the participation of foreign capital in the creation of joint ventures. In this case, the controlling stake is owned either by the capital-importing state or by national firms. The advantage of joint ventures is that, contributing to the strengthening of the economic dependence of their country on foreign capital, they create conditions for the effective use of new technologies, financial resources, brands, advertising, experience and knowledge, and bring foreign capital with them.

Loan capital is provided for a fixed period. Depending on this criterion, there are:

Long-term loan (up to 10 years);

Medium-term (2-3 years);

Short term (from 3 to 6 months to a year).

The export of entrepreneurial capital in the form of securities - shares - brings a dividend, and when exporting loan capital in the form of securities - bonds - a percentage.

The export of loan capital is the basis of the modern international credit system. Its functioning and development allows importing countries to solve a number of complex socio-economic problems. Due to lack own funds the export of capital contributes to the alignment of national rates of profit with the average rate of profit within the world economy, creates opportunities for the use of temporarily free money capital where it is most needed.

Along with the advantages of exporting loan capital, it often happens that countries receive loans, due to the underdevelopment of the economy, are able to repay the debt or even pay interest. First of all, this concerns countries that are developing. This creates global debt crises. The latter are manifested in the fact that individual countries or a group of countries declare that they cannot pay their external debts or cancel their debt. This upsets the balance of the international credit market and complicates the lending process. When individual violations of the repayment of the received loan and interest for its use become widespread, another global debt crisis begins.

An integral part of international economic relations is the functioning and development of transnational corporations (TNCs). They are generated by the internationalization of economic life, strengthened international industrial relations and led to the transformation of international companies into transnational corporations. These are the largest companies in the world, national in terms of capital and control, but international in terms of their activities. their feature is the presence of assets abroad, which arise on the basis of direct investment.

Within the framework of modern TNCs, international production complexes have developed, the unity of which is ensured by numerous production, financial and managerial ties. International production complexes operate on the basis of an intra-company division of labor, when branches of one company in different countries of the world specialize in the production of individual units, as well as corporations that carry out individual operations, jointly participate in the production of finished products.

For example, TNCs producing radio-electronic goods moved the most labor-intensive part of the production cycle outside their home countries to South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, using a significant wage gap. Similar trends are noticeable in the activities of foreign firms in the territory of the CIS countries.

TNCs emerged as American and by the mid-80s of the XX century. Most remained American. In modern conditions, the share of corporations from Japan and Western Europe is noticeably growing in the composition of TNCs in the world. But US corporations continue to hold leading positions in the world economy.

One of the oldest forms of international economic relations is international trade. It is an exchange of goods and services between two partners, which can be states, their firms or individual entrepreneurs from different countries.

International trade is formed by two counter flows of goods and services - imports and exports. The national economy, which is widely involved in international trade, belongs to the open ones.

The degree of openness of the national economy is determined by the ratio of a country's exports or imports to its GDP. Countries with significant material resources and a capacious domestic market are less dependent on international trade. Countries with limited material resources and which cannot efficiently produce the goods needed for domestic consumption are largely dependent on foreign trade.

International trade plays an important role in the development and growth of the efficiency of the national production of each country. Isolation from participation in the functioning and development of the world economy of an individual country in the field of international trade does not contribute to the creation of a highly efficient national economy. International trade is that form of international economic relations that promotes the development of the production of those types of products in each of the countries for which they have the most favorable conditions. This serves as the basis for the formation of international specialization of the countries of the world economy in the production of certain types products.

International trade is carried out in various modes. The free trade regime provides that when crossing customs borders on the way of commodity flows has no barriers. However, this does not always exist. Quite often, states establish trade restrictions when exporting or importing goods in the form of customs duties, taxes, quotas, and the like. Therefore, the antipode of the free trade regime is protectionism, which provides for the application of various restrictions in international trade. All this indicates that international trade is carried out and does not develop spontaneously. It is regulated by international agreements, national legislation with the help of economic and administrative methods applied by individual countries on their own territory. We are talking about the application of prohibitive duties and quotas on imports.

Trade duty is a kind of tax that is applied when importing a certain group of goods in order to replenish budget revenues. Sometimes a duty is applied to restrict imports to protect the national producer.

Import quotas define the maximum amount of goods that can be imported into a country in a given period of time. They are also used to restrict the import of certain goods into the domestic market, and thus protect the national producer.

In addition to these methods of regulating international trade, various administrative, technical and other types of trade restrictions are applied, the number of which is measured by several hundred names. These include national quality standards, environmental requirements, sanitary restrictions, product labeling and packaging requirements, internal taxes and fees, local component content requirements, etc. Some of them are applied by central government authorities, others by regional ones.

The implementation of international trade on the basis of protectionism is not always justified. Such a policy does not contribute to the maximum satisfaction of the needs of individual groups of consumers in the country, and generates an increase in prices for imported goods. The closed national market is less competitive, does not stimulate the increase in labor productivity and the quality of national production. Given this, an open national economy is more efficient, as it creates opportunities to take advantage of the international division of labor and specialization.

Along with the national foreign trade policy and legislation governing the process of domestic and foreign trade, the latter is carried out in accordance with the system of international legal rules. The content of the consolidated system of rules for international trade is regulated by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was concluded back in 1948 by twenty-two countries of the world. Now one hundred and ten states have joined this agreement, that is, most of the countries of the world.

Since 1995, the GATT has become the World Trade Organization (WTO), whose founding members were 81 countries (now the members of this organization are 140 states). The creation of the WTO is the result of negotiations within the "Uruguay Round", which lasted from 1986 to 1995 p. The WTO, in addition to the principles of the GATT, contains the Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property and controls the protection of investments.

The regulation of international trade is also carried out within the relevant competence of the International Chamber of Commerce and UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development). their main functions are the promotion of international trade; defining the principles and policies of international trade; negotiating and developing multilateral legal acts in the field of trade; coordinating the policy of governments and regional economic groupings in the field of trade.

The system of regulation of international trade is based on the observance of several principles:

First, participation in this system is voluntary: no country is forced to join it. If a country wishes to join this system, then it must recognize the rules of international trade that apply in it.

Secondly, countries that belong to the GATT / WTO interact with each other on the basis of the most favored nation treatment in mutual trade.

Thirdly, the reduction in the number of trade barriers between GATT/WTO member countries is achieved through the negotiation process. The GATT / WTO system and the free trade regime are not identical. Even those who have joined the GATT / WTO system retain a number of customs tariffs on imports. At the same time, this international organization aims to promote further liberalization of international trade by encouraging its members to negotiate the reduction of trade barriers.

Fourth, compliance with the rules " fair trade", the effect of which is manifested in the fact that GATT / COT member countries are prohibited from increasing tariffs after they have agreed to reduce them during negotiations. GATT / WTO member countries have the right to impose significant trade restrictions only when foreign imports cause significant damage to the national economy.We are talking about such restrictions that can only be implemented in a fair and non-discriminatory way.Another manifestation of the fair implementation of international trade is the provision of imported goods with national treatment.This means that after such a product is imported into country, it has and is subject to national legislation and taxes in the same parameters as for goods produced within this country.

The main trends in the development of world trade in modern conditions are manifested in several processes.

If at the first stages of the development of the world economy in international trade the export of raw materials and food from agricultural countries and the import of industrial goods from economically developed countries prevailed in international trade, then in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution the structure of international trade is changing. The share of manufacturing industry products is growing in it and the share of extractive industries is decreasing.

The relatively low share of agricultural products in international trade is due to the fact that the achievements of scientific and technological revolution in this area contributed to self-sufficiency in food products in many countries. This trend is also affected by limited financial resources individual countries for the import of agricultural products and foodstuffs.

The ratio of the share of individual countries and their groups in international trade is changing. From the 60s pp. of the last century, the share of American exports in international trade has been steadily decreasing and the share of Western Europe and Japan has been growing.

A characteristic trend in the development of world trade is the growing importance of interstate regulation foreign trade operations. This regulation has been in effect since the 1930s. After World War II, interstate regulation of international trade was further developed.

In international economic relations, technology is considered as a developed factor of production, which is characterized by high international mobility. The concept of "technology" is interpreted as a set of scientific and technical knowledge that can be used in the production of goods and the provision of services. They can be independent ways of converting resources into goods and services. In this capacity, technologies can act as design solutions, methods and production processes. Technology is sometimes combined with other types of resources, i.e., in new machines and devices, in workers with better education or vocational training. Historically, the initial form of technology movement is not their independent movement, but movement in combination with capital and labor.

The dynamic development of scientific and technological progress in the second half of the XX century. gave rise to the emergence of a global technology market, which functions along with the world markets for goods and capital. The material basis for the existence of this market is the international division of technologies. The latter is a historically formed or acquired concentration of this specific product in individual countries.

The unevenness of scientific and technological progress creates significant technological differences between countries. Therefore, a specific product appears in international trade - technologies, the international movement of which smooths out technological differences between countries.

Licenses are the main form of international technology transfer. When concluding a license agreement, the owner transfers the rights to intangible assets to the buyer for a certain period and for an agreed fee. The object of the license agreement may be patents, inventions, formulas, processes, designs, schemes, trade marks, programs, etc.

The use of an invention or other object of licensing provides for license fees (fees for licenses). Among their main forms, it is worth highlighting royalties, that is, periodic deductions (usually quarterly or annual installments), which are set as a percentage of the actual profit or sales volume during the commercial use of the license.

In addition, such a form as a paupial payment is also used. It is a one-time fee, the amount of which is fixed in the license agreement. Sometimes lump-sum payments are split into several payments in accordance with the stages practical implementation licenses.

An important form of international technology transfer is engineering, which covers a wide range of technological activities aimed at increasing the efficiency of foreign investment, minimizing the costs of implementing various projects. Engineering covers the preparation of a feasibility study of the project, the development master plans and drawings, construction management and supervision, acceptance works. After the construction of a new facility is completed and it is put into operation, engineering consists in providing services for organizing the production process and managing the enterprise.

Turnkey contracts as a form of international technology transfer provide for the conclusion of a contract for the construction of a facility, which, after its full readiness for operation, is transferred to the customer. Such projects, as a rule, are implemented by large construction firms and industrial equipment manufacturers, between which the respective markets are divided.

Management contracts are a specific form of international technology transfer. their essence lies in the fact that a firm in one country sends its managers to a foreign firm to perform managerial functions for a certain period and for a certain fee.

The need to use management contracts arises when there is a need to achieve a significant increase in the efficiency of the company, and their own managers are not able to provide it. The use of such contracts is also possible in the case when direct foreign investments are made from the supplier of the new technological equipment. In this regard, assistance in the form of management services is needed. Management contracts are also concluded when foreign investments are nationalized and the former owner is offered to continue running the enterprise until the local staff is able to manage it.

So, the international transfer of technologies is carried out in various forms, the use of which is aimed at increasing the efficiency of the development of national economies of countries that are part of the world community.

An integral part of international economic relations is the migration of labor. It is a process of spontaneous or organized movement of labor within the international labor market.

Migration of labor, when the population moves between individual regions within their country, is internal migration. External migration is the movement of labor from one country to another for a long period, usually at least a year.

External migration has two sides:

1) emigration, that is, the movement of part of the able-bodied population from the host country to another for long-term permanent residence;

2) immigration, that is, the arrival of labor in a certain country from abroad. In modern conditions, the absolute majority of the population of the countries of the world is involved in this process.

In accordance with the directions of labor migration, the following migration flows are distinguished: from developing countries to developed countries; within developed countries (for example, within European Union) within developing countries (from underdeveloped to new industrial countries) from post-socialist countries to developed countries (outflow of knowledgeable and unskilled workers and scientific and technical intelligentsia) within post-socialist countries (for example, from Ukraine to Russia). According to these directions, beginning of XXI in. several main centers have formed, defining modern trends international labor migration:

1. USA, Canada, Australia, hosting predominantly qualified professionals.

2. Countries of Western Europe, where a significant number of foreign workers, including those from Ukraine, are constantly employed in non-prestigious, difficult and unhealthy jobs.

3. Oil-producing countries of the Middle East, which willingly employ foreign specialists, as well as unskilled workers from neighboring Arab countries.

4. The industrial countries of Southeast Asia, where the population of this region of the world mainly migrates.

Turkey, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Pakistan, Morocco, Tunisia, the countries of Central Africa and the CIS countries should be mentioned among the traditional suppliers of labor to the international labor market.

The causes that give rise to labor migration are divided into two groups: general, which determine the development trends of all forms of international economic relations, and specific, associated only with migration. The first group of reasons includes the internationalization of economic life; uneven socio-economic development of individual countries, structural shifts in national economies associated with scientific and technological revolution. The latter leads to the displacement of workers from some industries and the emergence of an additional need for labor in others. The economic policy of TNCs, which is aimed at concentrating knowledge-intensive industries in some countries and labor-intensive industries in others, has a significant impact on labor migration.

The second group of reasons includes differences in the level of socio-economic development of countries generates differences in the levels of wages, housing conditions, development social sphere and attracts labor from other countries; shortage of certain specialties (in the developed countries of Western Europe, migrant workers provide 20-40% of the need for labor in such sectors as transport, construction, the coal industry, and consumer services); differences between countries in the conditions of professional growth of workers.

Regional conflicts and wars, the collapse or formation of new states, and personal reasons have a certain influence on labor migration.

Migration of the labor force causes ambiguous socio-economic consequences for the countries-exporters and countries-importers of workers. Positive consequences for labor importers are:

Increasing the competitiveness of manufactured goods due to the reduction of costs associated with the low wages of foreign workers;

The emergence of additional demand for goods and services from foreign workers stimulates the growth of production;

Foreign labor force plays the role of a social shock absorber during crisis processes;

Foreign workers are used at the most productive age, and in case of disability they return to their homeland, and entrepreneurs of immigration countries do not bear any costs for their further social protection;

Due to the higher wages countries of immigration encourage the entry of skilled labor and highly qualified specialists, refusing to spend money on their training.

The negative socio-economic consequences for countries-importers of labor include:

Increasing social tensions in labor-importing countries as immigrants take over the jobs of local workers;

Formation of a downward trend in wages in these countries;

Potential threat of rising unemployment. The positive consequences of the export of labor are:

Easing tensions in national labor markets due to a decrease in the number of unemployed due to emigrants

Creation of opportunities for emigrants to form a livelihood fund at the expense of host countries;

Transfer of part of earnings to the homeland;

Savings on learning new professional skills, acquaintance with the advanced organization of labor in the host country.

The negative consequences for the labor exporting countries include "brain drain" - the departure of highly qualified specialists.

Thus, external labor migration is an integral part of international economic relations, the presence of which ensures the functioning and development of the world economy.

(IEO)- economic relations between states, regional groupings, transnational corporations and other subjects of the world economy. They include monetary, financial, trade, production, labor and other relations. The leading form of international economic relations is monetary and financial relations. AT modern world especially relevant is the globalization and regionalization of international economic relations. The dominant role in establishing the world economic order belongs to transnational capital and international institutions, among which an important role belongs to the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). As a result of the international division of labor, the world's poles of economic and technological development (North American, Western European and Asia-Pacific) have been formed. Among actual problems international economic relations, the problems of creating free economic zones, international transport corridors and the Internet economy are highlighted.

MEO forms

There are the following forms of MEO:

international specialization of production and scientific and technical work;
exchange of scientific and technical results;
international production cooperation;
information, monetary and financial and credit relations between countries;
the movement of capital and labor;
activities of international economic organizations, economic cooperation in solving global problems.

Since the MER is based on the international division of labor, the significance and correlation of the main forms and directions of the MER is determined by the deepening of the MRI and the transition to its higher types. In this regard, the following should be noted: The general type of MRI predetermines the inter-industry international exchange, in particular, the goods of the extractive and manufacturing industries of individual countries. The private division of labor leads to the development and predominance of international trade in finished products of various industries and industries, including intra-industry. Finally, a single type of MRT means specialization at individual stages of production (assemblies, parts, semi-finished products, etc.) and stages of the technological cycle (re-distribution), as well as within the framework of scientific, technical, design and technological developments and even the investment process. This creates the prerequisites for accelerated growth in the capacity of the international market and sustainable expansion of international economic relations.

World economy

Generally world economy can be defined as a set of national economies and non-state structures united by international relations. World economy arose thanks to the international division of labor, which entailed both the division of production (that is, international specialization) and its unification - cooperation.

international trade

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, consisting of foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade arose in the process of the birth of the world market in the XVI-XVIII centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy of the New Age. The term international trade was first used in the 12th century by the Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, the author of the economic treatise “The Power of the Masses in Northern Italy”.

Monetary and credit international relations

Monetary and credit relations - financial relations between subjects of different countries, i.e. residents and non-residents, or relations between subjects of the law of one country, the subject of which is the transfer of ownership of currency values and other property rights associated with currency values.

Bretton Woods system

Bretton Woods system, Bretton Woods agreement Bretton Woods system) - an international system for organizing monetary relations and trade settlements, established as a result of the Bretton Woods Conference (from July 1 to July 22). Named after the Bretton Woods resort (eng. Bretton Woods listen)) in New Hampshire, United States. The conference marked the beginning of organizations such as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The US dollar has become one of the types of world money, along with gold. It was a transitional stage from the gold exchange standard to Jamaican system, which establishes the balance of supply and demand for currencies through free trade in them.

GATT

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT , GATT) is an international agreement concluded in the year to restore the economy after World War II, which for almost 50 years actually performed the functions of an international organization (now the World Trade Organization). The main purpose of GATT is to reduce barriers to international trade. This was achieved by lowering tariff barriers, quantitative restrictions (import quota) and trade subsidies through various side agreements. GATT is an agreement, not an organization. Initially, GATT was supposed to be transformed into a full-fledged international organization, such as the World Bank or the World Trade Organization (WTO). However, the agreement was not ratified and remained only an agreement. The functions of GATT were taken over by the World Trade Organization, which was founded by the last round of GATT negotiations in the early 1990s. The history of GATT is roughly divided into three phases - the first, from 1947 to the Torquay Round (focused on which goods are subject to regulation and the freezing of existing tariffs); the second, from 1959 to 1979, included three rounds (tariff reductions) and the third, the Uruguay Round from 1986 to 1994 (expansion of the GATT to such new areas as intellectual property, services, capital, and agriculture; the birth of the WTO).

Notes

Links

Dergachev V. A. International economic relations. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005. ISBN 5-238-00863-5
International economic relations. Ed. V. E. Rybalkina. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2005.

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