Scientific schools of public administration briefly. Leading schools and directions in the theory of public administration

Introduction

Society is a complex and multi-level entity. In order to fully satisfy the interests of its members and have opportunities for development, it must develop a regime of self-regulation and adaptation to the external environment. The development of such an ability means the ordering of elements, processes, institutions within the framework of unified system, the form of which is intended to make this ability the main condition for such self-regulation.

The condition for the formation and functioning of such a system is social production, the main goal of which should be the fullest possible satisfaction of the needs of people, possible only with the correct and efficient organization of this society, taking into account the basic values formed in it. The basis of this organization is a set of social systems formed around functionally significant areas of public life: economics, politics, religion, morality, science, culture, etc. The main coordinator of this process can be the state responsible for achieving specific results obtained during the functioning of these systems .

Management of a social system means the ability of the subject to make its dynamics predictable and manageable. Therefore, scientific management should proceed from the analysis of the managed object and the identification of factors that determine the mode of its internal self-regulation and resistance to external influences.

Any control system has both a subjective and an objective nature and can only be considered taking into account multilevel interactions with the environment. There is a subject that determines the nature of managerial influence. And there is an object in relation to which this influence is carried out. The specificity of public administration lies in the fact that the subject of this administration is a specially authorized representative apparatus, which performs its functions exclusively on a professional basis.

At the same time, in the sphere of public administration, the following ways of influencing the subject on the object can be distinguished: constant and episodic, forceful and soft, radical and gradual, direct and indirect.

At present, several historically established schools and directions are distinguished in the theory of administrative and public administration. Leading among them are American, English, French and German.

American School of Government

The American school of "public administration" has a general empirical orientation in its research, since the political science tradition in this country has been empirically oriented from the very beginning.

Already at the initial stages of the development of the American school of public administration, many of its outstanding representatives were not only theorists, but also practitioners. Professor L. White, who is rightfully considered one of the founders of the classical trend in the American school, led a large practical activity as a member of the Civil Service Commission. His fundamental theoretical work "Introduction to the Science of Public Administration" in 1926 is in many ways a generalization of the practice of public administration in the United States.

L. White believed that scientists should be guided by the study of the administrative state institutions in order to optimize their functioning and development. In his works, he paid the main attention to the development of a rational structure of public administration as a hierarchical organization. At the same time, L. White considered public administration as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions. The main functions among them he considered planning and organization.

However, the classical school in public administration underestimated the influence of the human factor on the development of the management process. Therefore, the achievements of social psychology and sociology in the 1920s and 1930s cast doubt on the universality of the classical principles that claim to be universal. Representatives of the human relations movement (or "school of human relations") tried to explain the actual functioning of administrative services through an analysis of the behavior of individuals and groups working in them. The most famous scientists of this direction in the USA in the 20-50s were Mary Parker Follet, Elton Mayo, Abraham Maslow. It was Miss Follet who first defined scientific management as "the provision of work with the help of others." She drew attention to the fact that well-designed administrative structures and good wages for employees did not always lead to increased labor productivity, as the supporters of the classical direction claimed. The forces that arose in the course of work between employees sometimes exceeded the efforts of managers to turn the management process in the right direction.

The studies conducted by A. Maslow made it possible to understand the causes of this phenomenon in many ways. He developed a hierarchy of needs, which is included in all textbooks on scientific management. In accordance with his concept, the motives of people's actions are mainly not economic needs (as the "classics" believed), but social, selfish, allowing to realize creative possibilities that can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with the help of money. Based on these findings, A. Maslow recommended using human relations management techniques, including creating a favorable psychological climate in the team, consulting with employees and providing them with more opportunities to realize their creative potential at work.

In the 1950s, a new trend in the theory of administrative and public administration emerged in the United States - the behavioral approach. Unlike the school of human relations, which focused on the methods of establishing interpersonal relationships, the new approach is based on the desire to more reveal the possibilities of a person in the management process, applied the concepts of behavioral sciences to public administration.

Discussions around the behavioral approach have continued throughout the history of "public administration" in the US. During this time, the approach itself has changed a lot and even the name has been modified: from behaviorism it has turned into behavioralism. The methodological significance of the behavioral approach consisted not in certain specific conclusions or proposals, but in a general orientation towards the transformation of the theory of public administration into an "exact" science. Initially, the formulation of the "accuracy" criterion was borrowed from the psychological concept of behaviorism (created by J. Watson).

G. Simon introduced the concept of "solution" and developed the possibilities of its use both in purely theoretical and empirical terms. At present, the paradigm of "decision making" is recognized as the most general concept in the study of managerial processes in the theory of public administration.

D. Truman proposed the concept of "group of interests", which is used for analytical purposes in public administration. These are groups "with common values and attitudes that put forward their demands through state institutions or, on the contrary, make demands on the latter."

D. Easton systematized the main ideas of behavioralism, based on the work of R. Dahl, C. Heineman, D. Waldo, D. Truman. He proposed eight basic principles of behavioral methodology. With regard to the theory of administrative-public administration, they can be reduced to the following. These are patterns, verification, methodology, quantitative methods, values, systematicity, pure science, integration.

The most interesting management concepts developed within the framework of the behavioral approach are the X and Y theories of D. McGregor and the theory of motivational hygiene by F. Herzberg.

D. McGregor believed that the management strategy is based on how the manager presents his role in relation to ordinary employees.

Theory X is called "static control strategy". Its main postulates are as follows:

* the average employee, by virtue of his nature, does not like to work and, if possible, seeks to avoid labor;

* due to the inherent dislike of work, most employees must be forced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment so that they work hard to achieve the goals of the organization;

* The average employee prefers to be led, seeks to avoid responsibility, is comparatively unambitious, and above all prefers his own safety.

D. McGregor believed that these provisions contained a large amount of truth, but they should not be exaggerated, and offered to agree with them only if there was reliable evidence of their validity in each individual case. However, he considered the Y theory, which was called "dynamic management strategy", to be a more flexible and efficient management concept.

Here are its main points:

* the costs of physical and mental effort in the labor process are as natural as in games or on vacation;

* external control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for directing people's efforts towards achieving the goals of the organization. The employee is able and will control himself if he strives for the goals in which he is interested;

* the efforts made by the employee to achieve the goals set for him are proportional to the expected reward for their implementation;

* the average employee, with appropriate training and conditions, not only assumes responsibility, but also strives for it;

* the ability to vividly show creative imagination, ingenuity and a creative approach to solving organizational problems is characteristic of a wide rather than a narrow circle of people;

* The intellectual abilities of the average official are far from being fully used in the management system.

D. McGregor understood that the premises of Theory Y are easy to accept, but difficult to implement. He also emphasized that Theory Y is only a set of hypotheses, not ultimate truths. It is much easier to apply it to middle and senior management personnel than to ordinary employees, since managers, by virtue of their position, are obliged to make decisions.

The concept of management by F. Herzberg is also based on the study of the motives of people's behavior in the process of management. F. Herzberg performed a series of studies, suggesting that work that brings satisfaction to an employee contributes to his mental health. His concept was called motivational hygiene. Hygiene, as you know, is the science of maintaining health, but in this case, a healthy mind and good mood in the process of work.

All the factors affecting the motives of labor behavior, F. Herzberg divided into two groups: contributing to and hindering job satisfaction. The first group included: labor successes; recognition of merit; the labor process itself; degree of responsibility; career growth; professional growth. According to Herzberg's theory, the presence of any of these factors (or all of them) enhances the positive motives of employees' work behavior, since it increases the degree of job satisfaction.

F. Herzberg associated the factors hindering employee satisfaction with work with the socio-psychological climate in the organization. If any of them turns out to be inadequate, this causes the employee's dissatisfaction and weakens the positive motives of his labor behavior, increasing job dissatisfaction. If these factors are adequate, they will actively motivate the employee.

The analyzed concepts testify to the shift in the perspective of studying administrative and public administration towards the study of the socio-psychological relationships of individuals in the management process, which led to the widespread use of the principles of microsociology (sociometry) by representatives of behavioralism. The essence of these principles is to find a correspondence between the microstructure of the group (or psychological relations between individuals) and the microstructure of society.

However, it gradually became clear that the principles of sociometry give a positive effect only in experiments conducted on small groups, and turn out to be completely unsuitable in relation to society as a whole. The nature of political and managerial relations in society is determined not by the psychological world of individuals, but, on the contrary, the social relations themselves are decisive in relation to the socio-psychological structure of the individual.

Supporters of behavioralism, carried away by criticism of the institutional-legal method and emphasizing its inability to identify and measure the factors that create deviations in the behavior of people in the process of management, themselves found themselves in a vulnerable position. Giving paramount importance to the study of various kinds of data on problems of low social importance (for example, the study of signs of an authoritarian personality), they left aside the cardinal problems of administrative and public administration.

All these circumstances contributed to the development of a critical attitude towards traditional behavioralism and led to the emergence of new trends in public administration after the Second World War - "postbehavioralism", "modernism" and "structural functionalism".

According to post-behavioralists, the main task of the theory of administrative and state management is not so much to describe and analyze the management process, but to interpret it in a broader sense - from the point of view of current socio-political values.

M. Falko notes that post-behavioralists from the very beginning advocated "applicability" and "action", believing that these categories are of primary importance, and the means and methods of conducting research are of secondary importance. They stated that the theory of public administration has never been a neutral science in its conclusions, and therefore, in order to understand the boundaries of the study, it is necessary to clearly understand the value criteria underlying it.

D. Easton outlined the main ideas of post-behavioralism in his book "Political System". He believed that it was more important for a scientist to understand the attitude to the problem and its meaning than to master the technique of research to perfection. Therefore, it is necessary to overcome the ideology of "empirical conservatism" of traditional behavioralism: one should not "bind oneself exclusively to the description of analysis and facts - this leads to a limitation of understanding these facts in a wider context." He called on scholars to research and constructively develop democratic values. In his opinion, the scientist should bear a special responsibility for the application of his knowledge.

In the theory of public administration, these ideas have found expression in the requirement to expand the responsibility of "intellectuals" - experts whose role is to protect the existing values of civilization and put their knowledge into practice. In other words, post-behavioralism is a kind of combination of positivist and value-ideological approaches to the study of problems of public administration.

A slightly different approach to the study of administrative-state activity is offered by representatives of the modernist trend. Without completely rejecting the ideas of behavioralism, they at the same time strive to overcome the extremes and shortcomings of this method. In particular, modernists propose to supplement it with an institutional approach, i.e. focus on the study of the administrative-state institutions themselves.

Modernists make extensive use of the theoretical and empirical methods of cybernetics, physics and mathematics. Various sections of mathematical statistics, and primarily factor analysis, various types of simulation models, the method of content analysis, verbal abstract models, game theory - these are the main methodological tools of the modernist direction.

However, the main drawback of the methodology of modernism is by no means that it relies on the means of natural and exact sciences, but that it overly absolutizes these means, thereby formalizing the scientific analysis of public administration.

Since the mid-1950s, the structural-functional method has become popular in the theory of administrative-public administration, which was largely facilitated by the work of D. Easton, G. Almond, T. Parsons. Considering public administration in terms of structural-functional analysis, American political scientists have focused on factors that promote or hinder integration and stability. existing system administrative and public administration. Commitment to the idea of social stability is gradually becoming a defining feature of the American school of public administration.

According to Parsons, structural-functional analysis in public administration is associated with two principles: distribution and integration. Distribution focuses on means and inevitably leads to conflict. Integration focuses on goals and the relationship of goals, which creates the stability of public administration.

Distribution in the management process is subject to "funds", "personnel" and "rewards". The means are transport, housing, material goods, means of production. The most important among them are money and power. This indicates that the distribution processes in the system of public administration are not simply material.

Allocation of personnel is a process involving the establishment of rules for the handling of funds and the development of systems that allow people to move from one position to another. This refers to the training, selection and appointment of civil servants. Education is only the first phase in the distribution of personnel in the management process.

There are several principles by which the distribution of personnel can be carried out. T. Parsons distinguishes four: universalism, particularism, the method of achievements and the method of prescriptions. The principle of universalism suggests that people will be judged according to standards that apply to everyone (eg education, professional qualifications, work experience, etc.). The principle of particularism, on the contrary, involves evaluating people according to specific group standards. At the same time, group standards can mean professional achievements (method of achievements) or certain prescriptions - social origin, political loyalty, nationality, etc. (prescription method).

The third type of distribution in the system of public administration is awards. Parsons has in mind a special kind of reward - the symbolic elements of prestige. Every activity and every role in public administration is evaluated in terms of prestige. For this reason, Parsons believed that prestige was "shared".

The relation of "rewards" to the distribution of means of production and personnel forms the core of integration theory from the point of view of structural-functional analysis. There are two aspects of the relationship between integration and distribution in the system of public administration. First, how well the management process allocates funds. Secondly, what is the coordination between the various distributive processes. For example, if in the first case there may be a question of how well civil servants are trained, then in the second - to what extent the existing system of training provides specialists with the necessary knowledge.

The famous American political scientist R. Merton formulated three universal postulates of the functional approach:

* functional unity of the system (consistency of functioning of all its parts);

* universal functionalism (functionality - utility);

* functional necessity.

In the early 1970s, when the crisis events of the previous decade called into question the idea of an equilibrium state of society, structural functionalism began to sharply lose intellectual credit. However, in the early 1980s, the newly achieved state of relative stability and the strengthening of the stabilization orientation in the theory of politics and the theory of public administration stimulated a new appeal to the functional approach.

In recent decades, the concept of organizational development has attracted great interest in the United States. Its origins can be found in developments devoted to the training and advanced training of managerial personnel. In her theoretical assumptions, she borrows a lot from the works of A. Maslow, M. McGregor, R. Likert. Until now, there is no generally accepted definition of the concept of "organizational development" in the American school. However, we can say that the initial premise of this concept is the statement about the increase in the speed and complexity of the nature of changes social environment.

Organizational development specialists present an ideal structure of administrative-public administration, built on the model of a living organism.

In their opinion, such an organization should have the following features:

* it must adapt to the new goals of public administration in accordance with the requirements of a rapidly changing socio-political environment;

* members of public administration institutions should cooperate and manage changes, preventing their destructive impact on the entire system of public administration;

* in developing institutions of public administration, the participation of each level in setting goals and making decisions is the rule, so that civil servants feel their involvement in planning and managing change;

* developing institutions of public administration should have favorable opportunities for the self-realization of their members, this requires free communication (open communications) and high mutual trust of civil servants, which should contribute to the constructive resolution of all contradictions.

Therefore, the goal of organizational development is to increase the efficiency of the functioning of the public administration system. This is ensured, among other things, by the ability of administrative structures to quickly and timely adapt to changes in socio-political and economic development, to changes in the structure and methods of the management system itself. The tool for achieving this goal is the change in the behavior of professional civil servants, deliberately introduced through a targeted impact on the system of value orientations of people, their interpersonal and intergroup interactions. Organizational development specialists also pin their hopes on training civil servants in the latest management techniques. Great importance is attached to the creation of conditions for a more intensive use of human potential on the basis of various methods of the behavioral sciences.

The main scientific schools studying public administration

The scientific school of management is represented by F.U. Taylor (1856-1915). In 1903 he published the book Workshop Management. In 1911 the book "Principles and Methods of Scientific Management". The main provisions of the theory are: - the creation of a scientific foundation in the sciences of management; selection of workers based on scientific criteria, their training and education; cooperation between the administration and workers in the practical implementation of the scientifically developed organization of labor; equal distribution of labor and responsibility between the administration and employees.

The classical school of management is represented by Henri Fayol (1841-1925), at the basis of this scientific direction, the scientific development of the principles of organizing administrative activities was carried out. He considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions. Henry Ford, Weber.

School of Human Relations Mary Parquet Follet (1868-1933) and Elton Mayo.. Distinctive feature Schools are a shift in the focus of attention in exercise from completing tasks to relationships between people.

Remis Likert School of Behavioral Sciences. Hertzberg, McGregor. The objects of these studies were social interaction, motivation to work, the nature of power and authority, organizational structure, leadership. The main criterion is to increase the efficiency of the organization's activities by increasing the efficiency of human resources.

Quantitative Management School Russell Acuff. The main direction of this school is the desire to introduce the methods and apparatus of the exact sciences into science. It arose with the advent of cybernetics.

In the 1920-1950s. most famous destinations in the theory of public administration there were the classical school and the school of human relations.

Prominent representatives of the "classics" are A. Fayol, L. White, L. Urwick, D. Mooney, T. Woolsey.
The goal of the classical school was to develop the leading principles for the organization of professional public administration. Almost all the "classics" proceeded from the idea that following these principles will lead to the success of public administration in different countries. Adherents of the classical school did not care much about the social aspects of state activity. They sought to look at the organization of management from the point of view of a broad perspective, they tried to determine the general characteristics and patterns of state organization.
At the same time, they quite successfully used the theory of factors or scientific management, borrowed from the organization of management in business. This theory was developed by F. Taylor, G. Emerson and G. Ford, who considered management as a mechanism that operates as a result of a combination of a number of factors that can be used to achieve certain goals with maximum efficiency with minimal resources. All these ideas were used by the "classics" in the study of public administration.
The French scientist A. Fayol is the most significant figure in the classical school of management of this period. His theory of administration is set forth in the book General and Industrial Administration, published in 1916. Fayol headed the Center for Administrative Studies he created in Paris. He argued that the principles of management he formulated are universal and applicable almost everywhere: in the economy, in government services and institutions, in the army and navy.
Fayol formulated fourteen general principles of management, which are included in the golden fund of science:
1) division of labor, (allows you to reduce the number of objects to which attention and action should be directed, which contributes to an increase in the quantity and quality of production with the same effort);
2) power (the right to give orders and the force that compels them to obey. Power is unthinkable without responsibility, that is, without a sanction - a reward or punishment - accompanying its action. Responsibility is the crown of power, its natural consequence, its necessary appendage);
3) unity of command, (an employee can give two orders regarding any action, only one boss);
4) unity of leadership, (one leader and one program for a set of operations pursuing the same goal);
5) subordination of private interests to the common ones (in an organization, the interests of an employee or a group of employees should not be placed above the interests of the enterprise; the interests of the state should be higher than the interests of a citizen or a group of citizens);
6) discipline (obedience, diligence, activity, demeanor, external signs of respect, shown in accordance with the agreement established between the enterprise and its employees);
7) staff remuneration (should be fair and, if possible, satisfy the staff and the enterprise, the employer and the employee; encourage diligence, compensating for useful effort);
8) centralization, (should be accepted or rejected depending on the tendencies of the management and on the circumstances; it comes down to finding the degree of centralization that is most favorable for the enterprise);
9) hierarchy, (a series of leadership positions, starting with the highest and ending with the lowest, the path along which, passing through all the steps, papers follow, coming from the highest authority or addressed to it);
10) order, (a certain place for each person and each person in his place);
11) justice (in order to encourage personnel to perform their duties with full zeal and devotion, one must treat him favorably; justice is the result of a combination of benevolence with justice);
12) the constancy of the staff, (staff turnover is both a cause and a consequence of the poor state of affairs);
13) initiative, (freedom to propose and implement plans);
14) the unity of the staff, (the strength of the enterprise is to use the abilities of everyone, to reward the merits of everyone, without violating the harmony of relations).

Within the framework of the classical school, the system of public administration appears as regulated from top to bottom. hierarchical organization linear-functional type with a clear definition of the function of each job category. It should be emphasized that such a model is quite effective in a stable social environment and the same type of managerial tasks and situations. It still finds its application at various levels of government.
In general, the strengths of the classical approach lie in the scientific understanding of all managerial relations in the public administration system, in increasing labor productivity through operational management. However, in cases where the human factor has a decisive influence on the effectiveness of management, the use of this approach is clearly not enough.

School of Human Relations appeared at the turn of the 20-30s. It was based on the achievements of psychology and sociology, which is why the problem of increasing labor productivity was solved by studying human behavior in the labor process. Scientists understood that by focusing their attention on a person, they would be able to offer methods for effectively stimulating labor.

R. Owen was the first to pay attention to people. He argued that the company spends a lot of time on equipment maintenance (lubrication, repairs, etc.) and cares little about people. Therefore, it is quite reasonable to spend the same time on "care" for people ("living machine"), then, most likely, there will be no need to "repair" people.

E. Mayo is considered to be the founder of the school of human relations. He believed that the old managerial methods were entirely aimed at achieving material efficiency, and not at establishing cooperation, while simply showing attention to people has a very large impact on labor productivity.

Among other scientists of this direction, one can single out MP Folett, who made a huge contribution to the theory of leadership.

Representatives of the school of human relations sought to consider each organization as a certain "social system", which was a new step in the development of management theory.

The task of management at this stage was to develop fruitful informal contacts in addition to formal relations (order-subordination) between members of groups (collective). Informal relationships in the process of joint work were recognized as a significant organizational force that contributes / hinders the implementation of corporate goals. That's why

informal relationships should be managed. If the management takes care of their employees, then the level of satisfaction should increase, which leads to an increase in labor productivity.

In the future (40-60s of the XX centuries), the ideas of the school of human relations formed the basis schools of behavioral sciences, whose representatives were A. Maslow, McGregor, Herzberg and others. Improvement of research methods in the field of sociology and psychology made it possible to put the study of human behavior in the labor process on a scientific basis. The basis of the behavioral (behavioristic) approach to management is various aspects of social interaction, which led to the development of the theory and methods of forming a team as a special social community and interpersonal relations within the organization. Particular importance is attached to the style of management and its impact on the productivity and satisfaction of employees with their work.

The founders of this school see the main tasks of management in the organization of personnel management, using the factors of communication, motivation, leadership, as well as maintaining the attitude towards personnel as active human resources. That is, they strive to improve the efficiency of the enterprise by increasing the efficiency of the human resource.

School of Quantitative Approach (Management Sciences) is the application of scientific research methods to organizational problems. Among the representatives of this school, one can single out such scientists as W. Churchman, R. Akaf, L. Arnoor - operations research; R. Disinson, F. Kast, D. Rosenzweig, S. Optner – systems research; C. Bernard, I. March - the study of social systems. This school is based on the methodology of cybernetics (N. Wiener), system analysis, general systems theory (L. Bertalanffy, S. Young), modeling and mathematical methods. Its essence is as follows. After posing the problem, a group of specialists develops a model of the situation - a form of representation of reality. The model simplifies reality or represents it in the abstract, making it easier to understand the complexities of reality.

Once the models have been created, the variables are given quantitative values, which allows for an objective comparison of each variable and the relationships between them.

A key characteristic of management science is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols, and quantitative values. The biggest impetus to the use of quantitative methods in management is associated with the use of computers. The influence of management science or a quantitative approach is currently increasing.

Public administration is a relatively young science - she is a little over 100 years old. The subject of science changed frequently during this time. In its modern form, this science has existed for the last 30-40 years, in Russia - less than 15 years.

Certain approaches to the management of the state apparatus arise along with the appearance of the first state formations.

In ancient China, Egypt, Greece, Rome, there was an interesting and original experience of organizing the state, understanding its place and role in the regulation of social processes. However, almost all concepts were associated not so much with administrative as with political management, where the focus of research was on the activities of political institutions.

In essence, the first scientific direction in administrative science in Austria and Germany in the 17th century, where the course of "cameral" or "cameralistic" sciences was taught at universities. Kameralien in translation
from German means "the science of public administration", and the word itself
comes from the late Latin camera, since under the absolutist regime in Prussia, starting from the 15th century, management was usually carried out in a collegiate form. This form of government balanced the centralization of power.

The most famous among cameral scientists is Lorenz von Stein (1815-1890). A native of Denmark, Stein taught at the University of Kiel. His main work "Die Verwaltungslohre" ("Theory of Public Administration" in 8 volumes) was published in Stuttgart in 1866-1884. Stein and his followers obviously did not limit themselves to the theory of state administration; on the basis of their proposals, important transformations were carried out in the organization of ministries that replaced collegiate institutions, in the recruitment and training of employees and in the organization of the administrative apparatus. The goal of the science of public administration, according to Stein, is "the implementation of the principles of social administration in the highest sense of the word."

From the end of the 19th century the cameral sciences in the countries where they originated entered a time of relative decline, as they were partly absorbed by political science in the era of its revival.

At the end of the XVIII century. and throughout most of the 19th century, there was a great deal of interesting writing on management issues. The loudest name of this era is Alexandre Francois Vivien. His "Essays on Administration" (first edition - 1845, second - 1850) represent the first serious work in the field of public administration science, built according to a single plan and on its own conceptual basis. The practical results of Vivien's work were especially fruitful, despite the political instability of the time. Specialized ministries were created, a law on civil servants and the procedure for their recruitment were developed, the apparatus was deconcentrated, and the School of Administration was opened in 1848.

With the advent of the works of V. Wilson, F. Goodnow, M. Weber, one can speak of the beginning of a new stage in the development of the theory of administrative and public administration as an independent scientific direction. In their works, two fundamental ideas of the scientific theory of administrative and public administration were expressed and developed: 1) in order to reform the administrative apparatus, one must know it well, and therefore, study it from scientific positions; 2) the apparatus of administrative-public administration should be separated from the sphere of politics. The chronological framework of this stage can be conditionally determined from the 80s. 19th century to 1920

At the end of the XIX century. the German scientist M. Weber was one of the first to single out the theory of public administration as an independent field of study - he developed the concept of the state as the main subject: politics and power; bureaucracy; state apparatus.

According to Weber, the state, like the political unions that precede it, is the domination of people over people with the help of legitimate violence as a means. He singled out 3 types of internal reasons, due to which some people obey others:

Ø charismatic domination (charisma is power built on the personal especially outstanding qualities of a person, for example, the power of a demagogue, the leader of the crowd);

Ø dominance by virtue of "legality" (by virtue of belief in the obligatory nature of legal government and the business competence of leaders).

According to Weber, in its evolution, the state has gone through (or is going through) all 3 types of power systems - first, power rests on traditions, then on the charisma of leaders, and ultimately on laws recognized by society.

Weber also first proposed theory of bureaucracy. He recognized bureaucracy as the purest type of legal domination. Bureaucracy is defined as a type of organization characterized by:

v distribution of labor;

v specialization;

v a clear management hierarchy;

v rules and standards;

v uniform principles of recruitment and promotion, based on the competence of the employee.

In Weber's idea, bureaucracy was identified with rationalization, that is, with the ordering, systematization and measurability of social processes, and in particular management.

Since 1890, the study of public administration has become part of the curriculum at leading universities in the United States and Western Europe. Research centers for administrative-state activity and institutions began to appear in the USA and Europe in the 20-30s. 20th century

The next stage in the development of the theory of public administration lasted from 1920 to 1950. The Americans achieved especially great success in these years, which can be explained by a number of reasons. In contrast to European countries, in the United States, higher education institutions already at that time enjoyed great freedom in the design of curricula and the choice of teachers. They had the opportunity to experiment, widely introduce new courses, one of which was the course of the theory of administrative-public administration, which contributed to the development and dissemination of new science.

The study of public administration in Great Britain and the United States began at the end of the 19th century. at the London School, and continued at Oxford, Cambridge, especially Harvard and other universities. The greatest contribution was made by American scientists E. Barker, D. Cole, G. Lasky, C. Manning and others. Professor W. Wilson, the future president of the United States, proclaimed the idea of independence and irremovability of the bureaucracy. He said that during the presidential elections, the change of political leadership should not be reflected in the administrative apparatus. He proposed to use in the system of public administration the most effective methods organization and management. At present, this idea of V. Wilson (separation of politics and administrative apparatus) has become one of the most important doctrines of the organization of public administration in Great Britain, the United States, as well as many other countries of the world.

A revolutionary contribution to the development of the science of public administration was made in the 1930s. J. M. Keynes. The key idea of J. Keynes is that the state should actively intervene in the development of society and influence the development of the economy. The scientist talked about the shortcomings market economy caused by economic crises and unemployment and proposed an anti-crisis program. In the 1940-19 60s. the concept of an economic system was created that would be regulated by both the market and the state (for example, through the redistribution of income in favor of the poor, tax policy, social benefits, etc.).

French researchers have made a significant contribution to the theory of public administration. A. Esmen in the book "Elements of constitutional law" analyzed the basic principles of public administration in France. Other French scientists - L . Dugi, A. Michel, M. Oriou- developed an institutional approach to the problems of public administration. A feature of these authors is the consideration of public administration not in itself, but only to the extent that it helped the study of state-political institutions.

France has developed dirigisme theory for the restoration of the country's economy after the war, the reconstruction and modernization of industries, the creation of new industries. To implement this theory, it was announced principle of state policy selectivity for the restoration and development of the most privileged branches of industry, such as heavy industry, chemistry, mechanical engineering, and oil refining. At the same time, the goals of promoting French goods on the world market were pursued.

In the post-war era in the United States and Western Europe, 2 areas of administrative management science appear:

v "classical school";

v "school of human relations".

Representatives of the "classical school" are L. White, F. Taylor, A. Fayol, D. Mooney and others. They argued that public administration should focus on achieving the set goals with the help of minimal costs with maximum efficiency. To do this, they proposed specialization, centralization, unity of orders, etc.

A great merit in this direction belongs to the French scientist A. Fayol, who put forward a theory about the basic principles of public administration. These principles include:

v division of labor;

v hierarchy;

v unity of command;

v discipline;

v responsibility, etc.

Despite the obviousness of these principles, initially they were used mainly in the management of corporations. Largely due to the works of Fayol and his like-minded people, the principles of corporate governance gradually began to be used in the administrative.

In general, the strengths of the classical approach lie in the scientific understanding of all managerial relations in the system of administrative and public administration, in increasing labor productivity through operational management. However, in cases where the human factor has a decisive influence on the effectiveness of management, the use of this approach is clearly not enough.

Another influential trend in the theory of public administration was the "school of human relations". It arose in the 1930s, when psychology was still in its infancy. The human relations movement emerged largely in response to the failure of the classical school to recognize the human factor as a key element in organizational effectiveness. The most famous scientists of this direction were M. Follet, A. Maslow, E. Mayo, W. Murphy. In their research, they drew attention to the analysis of psychological factors that cause employee satisfaction with their work, since in a number of experiments they managed to increase labor productivity by improving the psychological climate and increasing motivation.

Their main ideas:

v ensuring the stability of the administrative apparatus;

v creation of the most understandable, simple and legal incentives to encourage the good work of officials, their promotion;

v recognition of the bureaucracy as a special respected stratum of society;

v purposeful special training of managerial personnel, creation of a system that would nominate the best;

Further research has shown, however, that good employee relations do not automatically increase the productivity of administrative organizations and that the motivation that orients employees to achieve high results is more important than simple job satisfaction. As part of the human relations movement, various motivational models have been developed that are used in the theory of public administration.

The modern stage in the development of the theory of administrative-public administration began in the 1950s. and continues to this day. The most influential directions of the modern period can be considered behavioral, systemic and situational.

The development of sciences such as psychology and sociology, and the improvement of research methods after the Second World War, made the study of behavior in the workplace to a large extent strictly scientific. Among the largest figures of the 50-60s. G. Simon, V. Thompson, D. Easton should be mentioned. It was they who began to develop a new approach to public administration - behavioral. The originality of their work lies in the fact that the authors sought to explain the actual functioning of administrative services through an analysis of the behavior of individuals and groups working in them.

The school of behavioral sciences has moved away somewhat from the school of human relations, which focused on methods for establishing interpersonal relationships. The main goal of this school, in the most general terms, was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.

From the beginning of the 60s. in public administration, a systematic approach is rapidly becoming popular, which was largely facilitated by the work of D. Easton, G. Almond, T. Parsons. The application of systems theory to public administration has greatly facilitated the task for managers to see the entire organization in the unity of its constituent parts, which are inextricably linked with the outside world. This approach also helped to integrate the contributions of earlier schools that at various times dominated the theory and practice of public administration.

main idea systems approach consists in recognizing the interconnections and interdependence of elements, subsystems and the entire system of public administration with the external environment, i.e. with society as a whole. This makes it possible to consider the relationship in the system of administrative-public administration and between the system and society as a whole. This approach means that the strategy of public administration cannot be the object of accurate forecasting and planning, since society is constantly evolving and changing. At the same time, this approach implies an emphasis on the development of strategic management, which establishes common goals and ways of behavior of administrative and public administration.

Today, the systematic approach is one of the most influential areas both in the theory of public administration and in scientific management in general.

Analysis of the main variables that affect the functions of public administration, the effectiveness of administrative structures is the main achievement situational approach which became a logical continuation of systems theory. It originated in the early 1970s. and made an important contribution to the development of public administration, using the possibilities of direct application of science to specific situations and conditions. The most famous theories developed in line with the situational approach are the concept of "soft thinking" and "organizational cybernetics".

Supporters of the situational approach to public administration argue that optimal structures do not exist. The central idea of the situational approach is the analysis of the situation, i.e., a specific set of circumstances that strongly affect a given administrative organization in a given exact time. Since the focus is constantly on a new situation, within the framework of this approach, "situational thinking" is of particular importance. Using this approach, managers can better understand which techniques will be most helpful in achieving the goals of the organization in a particular situation.

The United Nations plays a huge role in the popularization and dissemination of the science of public administration. Since 1967, under the auspices of the UN, international meetings of experts on problems of administrative and state activity have been regularly held.

Today we can say that the theory of public administration has international recognition and the official status of an independent scientific discipline.

Unfortunately, in Russia the science of public administration has received official recognition quite recently. During the period of the dominance of the Marxist-Leninist ideology, state administration was considered from the point of view of the "leading and guiding role of the party." excluded from the competence of the state administration essential elements as goal-setting, decision-making, development and evaluation of programs and plans for social development. The tasks of state administration essentially boiled down to ensuring the implementation of party decisions taken outside state structures. State administration covered only executive and managerial activities; its meaning was reduced to a clear formula "command - execution". Critical remarks, alternative solutions, any creative moments in the activities of the state administration were not allowed.

That is why during the years of domination of the party nomenclature, the science of public administration was simply not needed. It was regarded as "bourgeois", obviously false.

Therefore, it is so important today to explore and summarize the experience of the development of science in the field of public administration. There is an international conceptual apparatus, materials of UN experts on the organization of state activity, which can and should be used.

At present, several historical schools and directions are distinguished in the theory of public administration. Leading among them are American, English, French and German. American School (Behavioral) has a general empirical (i.e., experimental) orientation of its research, many of its prominent representatives were not only theorists, but also practitioners. In the 1920s and 1930s, representatives of the “school of human relations” movement tried to explain the functioning of administrative services through an analysis of the behavior of individuals and groups working in them. The most famous scientists of this direction in the USA in the 20-50s were Mary Parker Follet, E Mayo, A. Maslow.

Wanglsh school economists considered public administration as a sphere of rational activity of people. The English political scientist B. Barry developed the concept of the "economic type" of state power, exercised through threats and promises. B. Barry considers power relations in society in terms of gains and losses. He believes that power relations take place only when one side gains more from maintaining them than the other, having the ability to achieve obedience at the last cost of minimal losses.

At the French School (Classical) state Henri Fayol is considered a classic of management, his “theory of administration” is set out in the book “General and Industrial Management”. A. Fayol gave a classic definition of scientific management: “To manage means to foresee, organize, dispose, coordinate and control; to foresee, that is, to take into account the future and develop a program of action; organize, that is, build a double - material and social - organism of the institution; dispose, that is, force the staff to work properly; to coordinate, that is, to connect, unite, harmonize all actions and all efforts; to control, that is, to take care that everything is done according to the established rules and given orders. ” A. Fayol formulated 14 general principles of management. This is the division of labor, power, discipline, unity of routine, unity of leadership, subordination of private interests to common ones, remuneration of personnel ... ..

german school public administration is the most influential among European schools. V. Weber believed that those who govern are entrusted with the task of creating an administrative elite, which must be legitimized (recognized) by the people, public opinion. Erhard's concept is about raising social role public administration. It proclaimed the subordination of all groups of the population to the common good, the strengthening of the role of the government, the reconciliation of all classes with the existing social order.

Liability of civil servants (constitutional, administrative, disciplinary, civil - legal, criminal)

A civil servant may be subject to all types of liability provided for by the current legislation.

Criminal liability civil servant comes under the condition that he commits a crime under the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation.

Civil Liability occurs if property or non-property damage (harm to health or moral harm) is caused to a citizen or organization by his actions or inaction.

The official is subject to administrative responsibility in case of committing an administrative offense in connection with non-performance or improper performance of their official duties.

For the commission of a disciplinary offense, i.e. for failure to perform or improper performance by a civil servant through his fault assigned to him official duties, the representative of the employer has the right to apply the following disciplinary action: remark; rebuke; warning about incomplete official compliance; dismissal from a substituted civil service position; dismissal from the civil service on the grounds.

For each disciplinary offense, only one disciplinary sanction may be applied.

Before applying a disciplinary sanction, the representative of the employer must request an explanation in writing from the civil servant. If a civil servant refuses to give such an explanation, an appropriate act is drawn up. The refusal of a civil servant to give an explanation in writing is not an obstacle to the application of a disciplinary sanction.

Before applying a disciplinary sanction, an internal audit is carried out.

When applying a disciplinary sanction, the severity of the disciplinary offense committed by a civil servant, the degree of his guilt, the circumstances under which the disciplinary offense was committed, and the previous results of the civil servant's performance of his official duties are taken into account.

A disciplinary sanction is applied immediately after the discovery of a disciplinary offense, but no later than one month from the date of its discovery, not counting the period of temporary incapacity for work of a civil servant, his stay on vacation, other cases of his absence from service due to good reasons, as well as the time of the internal audit. A disciplinary sanction may not be applied later than six months from the day the disciplinary offense was committed.

Public administration is not a frozen phenomenon of social life, but is constantly evolving. Its paradigms are constantly being improved, and often radically changed, which forces us to look for new solutions, each time to comprehend what is happening in a new way, to preserve the most valuable, creating the original, not to destroy the unique. Depending on the paradigm of public administration and the development of scientific knowledge, entire schools of public administration have been formed in different countries.

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federal state budgetary educational institution
higher vocational education

"RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF PEOPLE'S ECONOMY AND PUBLIC SERVICE under the President of the Russian Federation"
(RANEPA)

Faculty

INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC SERVICE AND MANAGEMENT (IGSU)

Faculty (Institute): IGSU
Direction of training: 081100.62 "State and municipal administration"
Program profile: "Effective public administration"
department : legal support state and municipal service.

Course work
on the topic:

"Basic Scientific Schools of State and Municipal Administration"

Work manager:
Position, rank - candidate
legal sciences

FULL NAME. Zanko Tigran Antonovich
grade ______________________________

signature _____________________________

"______" __________2014

Moscow 2014

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1. HISTORY OF FORMATION OF THE SYSTEM OF STATE AND MUNICIPAL GOVERNANCE

1.1. The prehistory of the emergence of state and municipal government

1.2. Correlation between the development of management science and public administration

1.3 Approaches to the classification of public administration schools

Chapter 2. MAIN SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

2.1. American and British Schools of Public Administration

2.2. French School of Public Administration

2.3.German School of Public Administration

Chapter 3. NATIONAL SCHOOL OF STATE AND MUNICIPAL MANAGEMENT

3.1. Soviet management school

3.2. Modern Russian system government controlled

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"The present is the past rolled up for action,

and the past is the present unfolded for understanding"

(Will Durant)

INTRODUCTION

The relevance of the study of scientific schools of state and municipal administration is determined by the process of improving the system of public administration in the Russian Federation.

In connection with the ongoing reform of the system of state and municipal government, the problem of building a theoretically substantiated, effectively operating model of state power is of paramount importance.

To fully understand the theory, process and practice of public administration, it is necessary to know how the theory of public administration developed, what decisions and methods were used to regulate in certain historical conditions.

The degree of scientific development of the problem is quite high. In the works of Aibazov R.U., Glazunova N.I., Zerkin D.P., and other authors, the essence and content of power state-administrative relations and their components are studied. The works of G.K. Ashina, I.A. Vasilenko, O.E. Petrunina, S.V. Pronkina.

The subject of the work is the study of scientific works in the field of state and municipal government.

The object of the study is the experience of various countries, including domestic, in the development of the theory and practice of public administration.

The aim of the study is to study the main scientific schools of state and municipal government.

The objectives of the study are: to identify using content analysis, comparisons,formal legal and other methods of the place of public administration in the system of scientific knowledge, the accumulation and systematization of knowledge about the main scientific schools of public administration abroad, the study of the national school of public administration.

The theoretical basis of the study is the educational literature on the public administration system of the following authors: Mukhaev R.T., Bartsits I.N. , Vasilenko. I.A., and others, as well as the monograph of Inzhiev B.B. "Participation of the state in modern civil circulation" and foreign articles (Barzelay Michael, Thompson Fred, Henry Nicolas, Wald Emanuel ) and Russian (Golubtsov V.G., Kalganova L.A., Sinkevich N.A. and others) researchers. Normative basis of the studyconstitute the Constitution of the Russian Federation, acts of legislative and representative bodies of power of the Russian Federation.

The structure of the study consists of sections:

The history of the formation of the system of state and municipal government. Includes backstorythe emergence of state and municipal government, the relationship between the development of the science of management and public administration, approaches to the classification of schools of public administration.
The main scientific schools of public administration. Includes the American, British, French and German Schools of Public Administration.
Domestic School of State and Municipal Administration. Includes the Soviet Management School, the modern Russian system of public administration.

Chapter 1. HISTORY OF FORMATION OF THE SYSTEM OF STATE AND MUNICIPAL GOVERNANCE

1.1. The prehistory of the emergence of state and municipal government

Management is the result of the intellectual activity of people, their consciousness and will. This is a purposeful control action of the subject on the object in order to transfer the latter to the required state. However, not all governance is public. The sources give various definitions of public administration. R.T. gives their definitions to this concept. Mukhaev, G.V. Atamanchuk, V.E. Chirkin and various organizations (e.g. World Bank Institute) 1 .

The general essence of the definitions of public administration is as follows:this is the organizing and regulating influence of the state (through state authorities), which, depending on the stage of historical development, has certain economic, political and social characteristics, on public life with the aim of streamlining, preserving or transforming it.

Public administration is not only a special area of political and administrative activity, but also a branch of scientific knowledge. 2 .

The formation of the theory of public administration as an independent field of knowledge has been taking place since antiquity, along with the emergence of classical managerial functions of planning, organization, coordination, accounting and control by passing from generation to generation, and subsequently fixing in written sources, ideas about the most rational forms of management.

Ideas about the model of effective management of state affairs originally originated in the East, where the first states appeared in the third millennium BC. (Ancient Egypt).

A version of government based on a system of laws enforced by the state apparatus is found in ancient China during the Qin era in the 4th century BC. e. In the 3rd century BC. in India, the first specialized treatise on management appears - Arthashastra 3 .

Ancient thinkers - Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, Cicero - argued on the topic of management, including state administration, in their writings.

The Middle Ages is characterized by the dominance of the theological theory of public administration (F. Aquinas). The state in this theory is the result of the manifestation of both the divine will and the human will. State power, by the way it is acquired and used, can be ungodly and tyrannical, in which case it is allowed by God.

A pragmatic approach to the analysis of public administration is first encountered in the late Renaissance in the writings of N. Machiavelli. He was the first to consider management as a set of technologies for the implementation of state power. The instrumental approach to management is focused on achieving specific goals and involves the correlation of costs and results (currently this approach is being implemented in the form of program-targeted management). The management technique outlined in the works of N. Machiavelli is still relevant today and constitutes the theory of effective management.

In modern times (XVII - XIX centuries), the concepts of liberal state administration by D. Locke (1632-1704), the constitutional state of C. Montesquieu (1689-1755), the rule of law - I. Kant, R. Mol and K. Welker (XIX century) appear. In the same period, voluntarist theories of management appeared (focused on the active role of the state and interventionist methods of management): the etatist theory of J.-J. Rousseau (social contract theory), the Marxist theory of K. Marx and F. Engels, the manipulative model of F. Nietzsche, the model of the corporate state of B. Mussolini (fascism).

The development of management thought in modern times ( XX c.) is characterized by the formation of the theory of public administration as an independent science and the emergence of a large number of scientific schools and directions focused on solving applied problems.

A decisive role in the development of public administration was played by M. Weber and V. Wilson, who formulated the three main ideas of the science of public administration 4 :

Public administration is divided into two main areas - political administration and public administration;
The state administration (bureaucracy) plays a supporting role and is subordinate to the political leadership;
Candidates for political positions in the administrative apparatus are elected or appointed for a fixed period of time, and all civil servants must be selected through competitive examinations and serve on a full-time basis (principle of lifetime employment).

Despite the fact that the terms state and municipal government are often mentioned together, they are not synonymous.

According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation (Article 12), local self-government (which is carried out, inter alia, through municipal government) is separated from the state 5 .

The difference between state and municipal government is that the latter is not carried out on behalf of the state, but is one of the types of social management. 6 .

In the legislation of foreign countries, municipalities are considered corporations of public and private law, that is, institutions that have the rights of both public content (subjects of administrative-legal relations) and a legal entity. Such legal capacity of the municipality reveals its dual legal nature as an organization of local public authorities and as a legal entity. 7 .

1.2. Correlation between the development of management science and public administration

Management is the process of managing people and organizations in a competitive environment, market relations and their pluralistic diversity. This is a science and practice with its own object and subject of control, its own set of managerial knowledge, skills and abilities. 8 But its main subject is the management of production and economic activities in order to increase the success of production and increase profits.

As an area of independent knowledge, science, management was formed at the end of the 19th century. This scientific discipline is a set of empirical knowledge that accumulates managerial experience and knowledge in the form of approaches, principles and methods that reveal and model various aspects of managerial activity.

At different periods of time, managers-practitioners faced problems, the solutions of which lay beyond their experience, which forced practitioners to turn to scientists for help. For example, at the beginning of the XX century. one of the main problems was to increase labor productivity, while at the end of the 20th century. - problems of flexibility and adaptability to constant changes in the external environment, which eventually grew into a problem of managing the organization's environment. Thus, at the beginning of the XX century. there were such scientific schools as the school of scientific management, the administrative school, the school of human relations, the school of the quantitative approach 9 .

The principles of management formulated within the framework of these scientific schools were further developed in the process, system, situational and other modern approaches to management.

The founder of the classical theory of management is F. Taylor, whose followers were A. Fayol, D. Drucker, X. Wolfgang, A. Maslow, who also considered issues of public administration.

In terms of its functional purpose, management is close to public administration. In the 80s of the XX century. the concept of “state management” even appeared in the West.“Public management” or “New public administration” means a market and contractual approach, treating citizens as clients to whom state and municipal authorities provide public services paid by a citizen based on his financial condition 10 .

Both public administration and management are aimed at efficiency and prompt response to market imputations. However, they are not synonyms. On a number of points, they differ significantly. Their discrepancy is determined by the setting-target priorities and resources. They "disperse" in terms of volumes, nature, forms and methods of control.

Comparative characteristics public administration and management are shown in the table.

table

Comparative characteristics of management and public administration

Criterion	Management	Public administration
An object	Processes in the organization	Public processes
Target	Economic profitability of management activities	Social efficiency, high-quality implementation of national social interests, needs, human rights and freedoms
Financial support	Private investment, individual deposits and sale of services	Taxation and budgetary distribution of national incomes and funds
Regulatory methods	dispositive	imperative
Control object	Ensuring private interests	The whole society, including such areas as defense, law and order, international relations, taxation, ecology
The main factor in the evolution of theory	Development of economic theory	Development of law

Thus, the differences are quite significant. It seems that it is appropriate to talk about state management only in the part where the state acts not only as a source of legal regulation of economic relations, but also directly appears as a subject of market relations.

1.3 Approaches to the classification of public administration schools

In his work "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions", the American scientist Thomas Kuhn introduced the concept of "paradigm" into public administration. - a classical scientific development, which is perceived by representatives of the discipline as a model and becomes the basis of an entire scientific tradition 11 .

As a model for the theoretical interpretation of the problem, the paradigm sets the logic of knowledge organization and forms a certain understanding of managerial phenomena in the researcher. When problems arise that cannot be resolved and explained within the framework of a paradigm, then a paradigm crisis occurs and a new paradigm begins to form. In the theory of public administration, paradigms are called schools and directions.

N. Henry (University of Georgia, USA) in his study of the history of public administration in the United States identifies 5 paradigms of public administration from the standpoint of the relationship between political science and administrative activity 12 :

1. "Political / administrative dichotomy" (1900-1926). It consists in dividing the functions of public administration into "expression of the state will" and bringing policy to life and, on this basis, dividing power into legislative and executive. Politics should not interfere with management. Management is a mechanism that operates as a result of a combination of a number of factors with the help of which it is possible to achieve certain goals with maximum efficiency with a minimum expenditure of resources. The founders of this paradigm were Frank J. Goodnow and Leonard D. White (work "Introduction to the Study of Public Administration ”, published in 1926).

In the light of the development of this paradigm, public administration was considered exclusively as a branch of scientific knowledge, while the study of politics and related issues was the task of political scientists.

2. "Principles of management" (1927-1937). In F.W. Willoughby's "Principles of Government", published in 1927, described the principles of government and argued that in order to govern the state, it is enough to know in which cases to apply them.In 1937, Luther H. Gulick published an article in which he described "orthodox" management principles that could be applied regardless of the purpose of the organization, its size, the "architecture" of government or social theory underlying its creation. Principle-based management was also considered in A. Fayol's book "General and Industrial Management".

In 1946 and 1947, Robert A. Dahl and Simon Waldo published several articles and books in reaction to "orthodox" principles. They examine the validity of the concept of principles from various points of view. Simon Waldo has effectively shown that for every "principle" of government there is a "principle" of opposition, thus calling into question the very idea of principles.

Both the paradigm of political dichotomy and management by principles belonged to the classical "administrative" school of management. 13 . By the middle of the 20th century, both of these paradigms were being challenged.

3. "Public administration - political science" (school of human relations, school of social systems). This paradigm owes its birth to the publication of J.M. Gaus in "Public Administration Review" in 1950: "Commentary on the 'Science of Public Administration'." According to the new paradigm, two types of public administration (both those dealing with the "pure science of administration" based on the social psychology of E. Mayo and associated with the "determination of public policy") should work together. They are complementary components and there is no reason why these areas of public administration should not go side by side, as long as they do not conflict.

The possibility of adapting the conclusions and recommendations of the school of human relations in relation to the theory of public administration is quite selective. Many methods developed by the school of human relations are effective only in such a narrow area of public administration as personnel management, where the personal influence of the manager on employees is important for timely decision-making and their successful implementation.

Various motivational models of behavior can be applied in the process of development and adoption of government decisions. Here it is importanttake into account the actual behavior of individuals and groups, the set of their needs and attitudes, which is the focus of the theory of human relations. However, they are hardly applicable to the field of operational and strategic public administration.

Development of school application ideas social behavior in public administration on the basis of a systematic approach received in the theory of social networks Ch. Barnard.

4 “Public administration is an administrative science” (empirical school). In 1956, a paper was published in the Administrative Science Quarterly, according to which the distinctions between public, business and administrative institutions were false (Keith M. Henderson). Supporters of this school (D.K. Midler, W.T. Ford, G. Simonds) claimed to be the creators of the universal science of management, or "managerism".

The theorists of the school of "managementism" argued that there is a general concept of management that remains unchanged in general and varies only depending on the types of human groups.

A different point of view was expressed by the well-known theorist and management consultant P. Drucker (1909-2005). Management is an art, or a way of running a business. According to Drucker, management is the principles and methods of managing a business enterprise, because the art, competence, experience of management cannot be transferred as such and applied to the organization of other institutions and management. 14 .

For "business schools" public interests did not play a role and this aspect of management science was not considered in the light of this paradigm.

5. "Public administration - public administration" (from 1970 to the present).

As part of the development of previous paradigms, scientific knowledge has been accumulated about how and why organizations work, how and why people behave, how and why decisions are made. In addition, significant progress has been made in improving the applied methods of management science, and new technologies have been developed that often reflect what has been learned in the more theoretical realms of organizational analysis.

Analysis of the forecasts of the future development of the science of public administration using the Delphi method in the early 1970s showed that future public administration will study value preferences, but will avoid value judgments. In general, the future approach to the theory of state building will be deductive and inductive. A significant decrease in the importance of the field of democratic methods and values was expected, reflecting the decrease in the normative-deductive approach to public administration research. 15 .

A traditional and rigid distinction between the "public sphere" and the "private sphere" emerges. In addition, public administrators were more concerned with linking the fields of applied science, political economy, public policy development and analysis, and measuring governance outcomes.

Political network theory reconstructs the relationship between public administration and modern society. Instead of attempting to reduce the complexity of society in order to govern effectively, it includes increasing complexity as a necessary precondition for governance.

Political networks are formed in various sectors of government and politics and represent a set of structural relationships between the political institutions of the state and society.

Within the framework of this paradigm, management and politics are combined, subjected to a moral dimension. The key point to consider is connections and relationships, not political institutions. The problem of efficiency is considered in the aspect of "goals-processes", and not "goals-means".

It should be noted that the change of paradigms in the science of public administration is not only an alternation of theories, but also a change in attitudes towards the object of study, a change in goals, methods, a point of view on the subject, and sometimes the subject itself. The desire to improve the ability of the public administration system to adequately respond to the challenges of the time prompted the authors to formulate new topics that allow identifying possible ways to improve its responsive and adaptive functions. 16 .

Chapter 2. MAIN SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

2.1. American and British Schools of Public Administration

The most prominent representatives of these schools are: I. Berlin, E. Birch, R. Rose, B. Barry, M. Oakeshott, P. Checkland, L. White, W. Wilson, A. Maslow, A. Shik.

One of the main characteristics of the American school of management is the empirical focus of research.Already at the initial stages of the development of the American school of public administration, many of its outstanding representatives were not only theorists, but also practitioners. The founder of the American School is considered28th US President W. Wilson.

Professor L. White, who is rightfully considered one of the founders of the classical trend in the American school, led a large practical activity as a member of the Civil Service Commission. His fundamental theoretical work "Introduction to the Science of Public Administration" (1926) is in many ways a generalization of the practice of public administration in the United States. 17 .

Representatives of the "school of human relations" in the American school: Mary P. Follet, E. Mayo, A. Maslow,attempted to explain the actual functioning of administrative services through an analysis of the behavior of individuals and groups working in them.

In the 1950s, a new direction in the theory of public administration emerged in the American School - the behavioral approach, which, in contrast to the school of human relations, focused on methods for establishing interpersonal relationships. Within the framework of this approach, many units of analysis have been developed that are successfully used in public administration.

G. Simon introduced the concept of "solution" and developed the possibilities of its use both in purely theoretical and empirical terms. Today, the paradigm of "decision making" is recognized as the most general concept in the study of managerial processes in the theory of administrative and public administration. 18 .

K. Deutsch proposed a message as a unit of analysis, as well as channels for its distribution. D. Easton systematized the main ideas of behavioralism, based on the work of R. Dahl, C. Heineman, D. Waldo, D. Truman. Within the framework of the behavioral approach, D. McGregor developed the X and Y theories (static and dynamic control theories) and the theory of motivational hygiene by F. Herzberg 20 .

Thus, the perspective of studying administrative and public administration has shifted towards the study of the socio-psychological relationships of individuals in the management process, which has led to the widespread use of the principles of microsociology (sociometry) by representatives of "behavioralism". At the same time, it gradually became clear that the nature of political and managerial relations in society is determined not by the psychological world of individuals, but, on the contrary, the social relations themselves are decisive in relation to the socio-psychological structure of the individual. 21 .

This circumstance contributed to the development of a critical attitude towards traditional behavioralism and led to the emergence of new trends in public administration after the Second World War - "post-behavioralism", "modernism" and "structural functionalism".

Since the mid-1950s, the structural-functional method has become popular in the theory of administrative and public administration, which was largely facilitated by the works of D. Easton, G. Almond,
T. Parsons 22 .

Considering public administration in terms of structural and functional analysis, American political scientists have focused on the factors that contribute to or hinder the integration and stability of the existing system of administrative and public administration. Commitment to the idea of social stability is gradually becoming a defining feature of the American school of public administration. In her theoretical assumptions, she borrows a lot from the works of A. Maslow, M. McGregor, R. Likert.

The hallmarks of the American school of public administration are: consideration of the sphere of public administration as a scientific discipline; study of psychological and motivational factors in the process of public administration; pragmatic approach to management; synchronization of administrative and budgetary processes; development of the theory of decentralization; convergence of public and private management.

Just like the US School of Government, the British School uses institutionaland economic (pragmatic) approach to the study of public administration, the study of psychological and motivational factors of interaction between government and society 23 .

The study of public administration in the system of English academic social science began at the end of the last century, when the London School of Economics and Political Science was founded at the University of London.

The English philosopher M. Oakeshott, who headed the Department of Political Science at the London School of Economics in the 1950s and 1960s, developed two concepts of public administration: target and civil 24 .

The system of “soft thinking” by Peter Checkland, which transferred the sign of systemicity from reality to the process of its cognition, enjoys the greatest influence in the English school of “public administration”. This approach allows structuring management processes through the study of different views and positions, discussing their legitimacy in specific circumstances.

Another new direction of the English school is organizational cybernetics. S. Beer introduced the central concept of organizational cybernetics - a balancing system: capable of responding to changes in the environment, even if these changes cannot be predicted during the creation of the system.

The emphasis in the studies of the English school is more on the study of the problems of the legitimacy and authority of power in the context of public administration; responsibility in public administration to public opinion and government to parliament; cybernetic approach, which is expressed in the consideration of public administration as a balancing system that is able to respond to changes in the environment and correspond to its complexity. The English school is heavily influenced by the American school 25 .

2.2. French School of Public Administration

The French school of public administration was influenced by the institutional direction of development of the theory of public administration.

The most prominent representatives of this school are: A. Fayol, M. Ponyatkovsky, P. Avril, M. Prelot, M. Duverger.

A. Fayol gave a classic definition of scientific management: The management of any organization is based on 14 general principles of management and includes six main groups of functions: technical, commercial, financial, insurance, accounting and administrative. The rules formulated by Fayol were generally accepted for several decades, taught in training schools, and used by organizational practitioners. Fayol's ideas have much in common with the theories of the American classics of management. 26 .

Despite the widespread recognition of the theory of institutions, within the framework of the French school of administrative and public administration, a discussion on the content of the concept of “institution” continued for a long time (M. Prelo, M. Duverger).

On the basis of the theory of institutions in the French school of public administration, the institutional concept of the state was formulated, which replaced the interpretation of the state as a legal entity, developed within the framework of constitutional law. The state began to be seen as an institutionalized power, in the broad sense of the word - an institution as such, in which power is embodied. 27 .

The institutionalization of power means that power is transferred from the ruling persons to the institution, which henceforth becomes its sole owner. Of course, the ruling persons as such do not disappear, but their place in state administration changes significantly. If earlier they exercised power as their own prerogative, now they are exclusively agents of the highest authority. The termination of personal power means that the actions of those in power are placed within a legal framework. In fact, power turns into legal. Note that in this way the institutional concept of the state will be an important step in the development of the modern theory of the state.

In general, the theory of public administration in France has developed from abstract theoretical developments to the development of specific recommendations for the development of public administration in the country. 28 .

A characteristic feature of the French school is the closeness of the social sciences to political and state needs.

One of the most important problems in the theory of administrative and public administration in France is the problem of finding the optimal system of interconnection between the state apparatus and citizens (works by F. Gogel and A. Grossier) 29 .

One of the French versions of the reformist theory of "participation" was the concept of a new social contract, put forward by an influential political figure, chairman of the National Assembly E. Faure, who proposed to significantly expand the powers local authorities authorities, especially at the level of municipalities and communes, to involve workers more widely in the management of public affairs. In 1970, a "New Social Contract Research Committee" was set up to promote "socialism through participation." At the same time, this concept did not receive wide support and was soon forgotten.

Another radical theory of administrative-public administration of a new type was developed by M. Poniatowski. In his book The Choice of Hope, he writes that humanity will soon enter a new era - the era of scientific civilization. Therefore, it is necessary that “the political apparatus of modern states develop methods and institutions capable of solving the problem of the future”, and not be content with ready-made recipes borrowed from the past.

The representative of the behavioral concept of administrative-public administration in the French school is Michel Crozier. In the desire of employees to ensure security, M. Crozier sees one of the main elements of the bureaucratic system.

In the work of the former President of France, J. d "Estaing," French Democracy ", he proposes his own concept of the "welfare state", according to which modern society "should provide all its members with a concrete opportunity to achieve a minimum income, a kind of social wealth" 30 .

The generalization of the main concepts allows us to identify a number of the most significant features inherent in the French school of public administration: the state is seen as an institution in which power is embodied; search for a connection between the effectiveness of public administration and the development of decentralization, giving the opposition certain rights, subject to the inviolability of state institutions; outsourcing.

2.3.German School of Public Administration

The German school of public administration had a powerful influence on the development of the theory of public administration through the advancement of fundamental philosophical concepts.

Founder of the German school of administrative law
O. Mayer defined public administration as the activity of the state in the implementation of its goals, with the exception of legislation and legal proceedings 31 .

From the very beginning, in the German school of public administration, a dualism of philosophical understanding of the problems of administrative-public administration and the sociology of administrative-state activity has emerged.

Most of the West German political scientists, in the spirit of classical traditions, sees in state administration the embodiment of "transcendental reason", "eternal" values and the sphere of realization of freedom. This is most clearly illustrated by the concepts of H. Kuhn, E. Forsthoff, E. Hippel, A. Gehlen, F. Jonas 32 .

Typical for the sociological approach to public administration will be the concept of W. Weber, who believes that the system of public administration should be given more authority, but with ϶ᴛᴏm one should not expand the functions of the bureaucratic apparatus.

The concept of administrative and public administration by L. Erhard is associated with an increase in the social role of public administration. This concept proclaimed the subordination of all groups of the population to the common good, the strengthening of the role of the government, the reconciliation of all classes with the existing social system, the establishment of a "pluralistic society of unions" built on voluntary joint actions of all social groups of society. The new concept consolidated the decisive role of administrative and state administration in the development of society. The state and its institutions were proclaimed the guardians of the common good. The essence of public administration technique according to L. Erhard is that all positions in the public service should be occupied by specialists in common interests who determine the policy of the country 33 .

The monistic approach to public administration is offered by the supporters of the structural-functional approach in Germany. (N. Luhmann). N. Luhmann proposes to constantly study the specific functions of administrative structures, but does not consider the structure of administrative-state administration itself under ϶ᴛᴏm.

Within the framework of the theory social development Germany's leading political scientist R. Dahrendorf argues that the distribution of power in modern society has become rather amorphous. According to Dahrendorf, when there are no groups capable of exercising political dominance, and instead a faceless bureaucracy dominates, the existing political system is in extremely great danger of losing legitimacy.

The theory of social conflict developed by R. Dahrendorf, the ways he developed for regulating and “canalizing” conflicts at various levels of administrative and public administration are widely used in the theory of administrative and public administration. 34 .

A generalization of its main provisions allows us to identify a number of the most significant features inherent in the German school of public administration: consideration of public administration as the embodiment of "eternal" values and the sphere of realization of freedom; the basis of the subject of the theory of public administration is human nature; the state apparatus was formed by stabilizing order and rules; rigid bureaucratic principles and elitism of civil servants; public administration, aimed at state regulation of the economy; structural-functional and conflictological approach to public administration 35 .

Chapter 3. NATIONAL SCHOOL OF STATE AND MUNICIPAL MANAGEMENT

In Russia, until 1917, the school of administrative law dominated, within the boundaries of which the problems of public administration were studied. The works of I.E. Andrievsky, A.V. Lokhvitsky, A.I. Vasilchikova, A.S. Alekseeva, V.M. Gribovsky. The works of A.A. Bogdanov, first of all his "General organizational science (tectology)" anticipated many ideas of cybernetics and general systems theory 36 .

During the years of domination of the party nomenklatura, the science of administrative and state administration was simply not needed. It was regarded as bourgeois, deliberately false.

Public administration was considered during this period of Marxist-Leninist ideology in terms of "the leading and guiding role of the party." Out of competence government agencies such important elements as goal-setting, decision-making, development and evaluation of programs and plans for social development were excluded. The tasks of state administration essentially boiled down to ensuring the implementation of party decisions taken outside state structures. 37 .

As a subject of management science, it was proposed to consider the problems of personnel and development labor collectives, labor stimulation, organizational design, optimization of management based on "human relations".

In the early 1960s the point of view was expressed, according to which the science of public administration should be complex, i.e. cover the state-legal, socio-economic, psychological, technical-organizational and natural-scientific aspects of management. Among the directions of the science of management, the general theory of social management, or the management of a socialist society, stood out; public administration; production management and in organizations. The Soviet school of management focused on formational theory, political economy 38 .

The study of public administration problems that go beyond administrative law coincided in our country with the rapid growth of interest in cybernetics. None of the political scientists, of course, proposed to consider the problems of state administration exclusively from the point of view of the categories of cybernetics. However, in a number of works, the cybernetic approach turned out to be, if not dominant, then at least occupying a very large place.

The science of management was defined by some authors as "the science of the laws of effective implementation of conscious and volitional influence on a social system in order to transfer it from one state to another or give it certain new qualities and properties." "Impact", "transfer from one state to another" - these are the characteristics of control developed by cybernetics 39 .

Since the 70s, public administration began to develop as an independent area of social science, touching, but not merging, with "neighboring" scientific areas. One of these areas - the general theory of social management was presented in the works of V.G. Afanasyev, K.I. Varlamova, D.M. Gvishiani, A.M. Omarova, Zh.T. Toshchenko, N.M. Slepenkova, V.G. Smolkov.

The process of "sociologization" of the social sciences that developed in the USSR also embraced the sphere of public administration. Along with others, a sociological approach to its study has been outlined.

Public administration as an independent branch of science was represented by the works of jurists G.V. Atamanchuk, V.G. Vishnyakova, D.N. Bakhrakh, I.L. Bachilo, B.N. Kurashvili, M.I. Piskotina, Yu.A. Tikhomirov. They have extensively studied general and particular issues of public administration, its principles, functions, organizational structures and technologies. 40 .

3.2. The modern Russian system of public administration

The collapse in the early 1990s of the entire state-legal system of the country, among a long list of internal and external causes, was due to the inconsistency of the management system with the needs of the development of society and the economy. The system of state administration that took shape in Russia during the 20th century, not coping properly and expectedly with the functions assigned to it, not meeting the priority tasks of state building, could not withstand the challenges of the time and ensure the self-preservation of the state.

The constitutional approval of the principle of separation of powers and the transition to market relations in economic and other spheres of life, the consolidation of various forms of ownership led to a change in the type of activity of the executive branch. There was a limitation of the scope of using methods of direct directive management of its objects (enterprises, institutions, organizations, etc.). Along with this, the methods of registering objects of management, licensing, control and supervision, lending, taxation, etc. have been widely used. 41

However, the merging of property and power in the 90s deformed the public nature of the management system: it became corporate and stopped working for society, and therefore, at the beginning of the 21st century, Russian society was forced to admit its inefficiency. 42 .

The peculiarity of modern views on the history of public administration is that, on the one hand, the approach to the history of administration is becoming more objective, independent of class or monarchical predilections. On the other hand, the independence of historical science from the state has led it to depend on the market. There are a lot of "sensational" theories, the purpose of which is simply to rewrite history and profit from the scandal.

On the issue of the scientific foundations of the system of administrative-public administration in our country, the opinions of scientists today are divided. Some emphasize the uniqueness of the forms of Russian statehood and believe that the experience of Western countries cannot serve as a basis for the formation of a national concept of public service. They propose to rely on the historical experience of Russia in the field of administrative and public administration, to use mainly national forms and traditions. This point of view is very attractive, because for every patriot the past of his fatherland is always dear and holy.

Another point of view absolutizes the importance of foreign experience in the field of administrative and public administration. Some scientists believe that it is necessary to use the already worked out effective modern social forms that have developed in Western countries and transfer them to our lives. Disagreements among these scientists exist only about which model is better to use: American, German, French, etc. 43

Studying Western experience, it is very easy to adopt the external forms and attributes of the state, but it is very difficult to ensure the effective functioning of the relevant institutions.

Since the 2000s, Russia has been implementing an administrative reform that provides for the implementation of measures in six main areas: management by results; standardization and regulation; optimization of the functions of executive authorities and combating corruption; increasing the efficiency of interaction between executive authorities and society; modernization of the information support system for executive authorities; securing administrative reform.

An unsuccessful example of a simple copying of the Western model of three-tier management was the restructuring of the system of public administration within the framework of administrative reform. Instead of the expected reduction, as a result of the reform, the size of the state administration apparatus increased, the number of approvals tripled, and the apparatus struggle intensified 44 .

Copying Western experience is also the introduction of the principles of results-based management in the framework of the budget reform. Initially, it was planned to implement results-based management principles by 2008. However, the federal budget in the program structure was formed only in 2013 45 . To date, experts acknowledge that targeted programs have not become an effective means of linking the goals of public policy and financial resources, due to the lack of a clear system of public administration goals 46 .

Thus, today it is not enough to focus on the obvious formal properties of democratic institutions of public administration, it is more important to look for options for adapting these institutions and their functions to the needs of the Russian people, independently discovering even well-known solutions for organizing public administration, buildingscience of public administration in the "national lexicon". It is necessary to make its applied technologies understandable and accessible. 47 .

Currently in Russia there is a model of power that cannot be attributed to any of the classical systems. It has a number of shortcomings: an excessive concentration of power in the hands of the head of state, the technocratic nature of the Government, the lack of complete system control, underdevelopment of the judicial and party systems, which cause random people, selected according to the criterion of personal loyalty or as a token of gratitude, to get into power structures.

According to Mukhaev R.T. constitutional reform is needed to balance the branches of government 48 .

The main factors influencing the development of public administration in Russia are currently:

The need to harmonize the reforms of management systems in Russia and in other countries of the world.
Globalization of countries' economies and universalization of approaches and methods of public administration.
The implementation of administrative reform requires significant changes in the style of management and in the way of thinking of state and municipal employees.

According to M. Barsaley and F. Thompson currently there is a discrepancy between existing models in the theory of public administration, aimed at solving practical problems, and research strategies focused on the acquisition of contemplative knowledge 49 .

By 2020, the science of public administration should provide a set of tools for practical intervention and the discovery of practically useful knowledge.

The system of state and municipal government will be built on the basis of three elements: the selection of typical approaches to solving the problem of public administration based on existing models, the implementation of empirical studies of the problem situation, the identification of the main directions for the development of the situation based on extrapolation and generalization of experience.

Argumentation and selection of typical approaches to solving public administration problems consists of observation, normative description of the desired result, assessment of beliefs, values and attitudes.

Existing experience provides ideas and allows concretizing the mechanisms that trigger the implementation of the necessary functions. Focusing only on the performance of functions without taking into account the influencing conditions will not allow the application of instrumental influence.

To gain knowledge about the development and operation of practice, it is necessary to analyze how significant events and experiences are conceptually related, which requires a historical understanding of the events. Events are key elements of the experience. Events include both the actions taken by the participants to solve the problem and the results obtained.

The design of practical actions is to a large extent the identification of the features of the object in new relations on the basis of extrapolation. The research will focus on heuristics related to the development and operation of practices based on comparative studies and historical generalizations, which will providereal picture of practical public administration and allow researchers to offer practical recommendations.

The process of formation of the science of management in our country is, in fact, just beginning and is characterized by a persistent search for a paradigm of public administration suitable for Russia. Creating a scientific concept of Russian public administration, it is necessary to analyze, study and select all the best and most advanced accumulated by world science in the field of administrative and public administration, but always taking into account national traditions in this complex area of human activity.

CONCLUSION

In accordance with the goal in this paper, the main scientific schools that study the system of state and municipal government have been studied.

Ideas about the model of effective management of state affairs originally originated in the East, where the first states appeared in the third millennium BC. The decisive role in the development of public administration was played by M. Weber and V. Wilson, who formulated the three main ideas of the science of public administration.

Very often, public administration is considered as part of the science of management - management. Nevertheless, they differ significantly in a number of positions. Their discrepancy is determined by the setting-target priorities and resources. They "disperse" in terms of volumes, nature, forms and methods of control.

Today, in the theory of administrative and public administration, several historically established schools and directions are distinguished. Leading among them are American, English, French and German.

In Russia, until 1917, the school of administrative law dominated, within the boundaries of which the problems of public administration were studied. During the years of domination of the party nomenklatura, the science of administrative and state administration was simply not needed. It was regarded as bourgeois, deliberately false. Public administration was considered during this period of Marxist-Leninist ideology in terms of "the leading and guiding role of the party."

The first domestic schools of managementin the Soviet period began to take shape in the context of the introduction of elements into management activities scientific organization work around such scientists as A.K. Gastev, I.M. Burdyansky, N.A. Vitke, P.M. Kerzhentsev, E.F. Rozmirovich, S.G. Strumilin, who studied the general problems of labor organization and management on scientific grounds.

The study of public administration problems that go beyond administrative law coincided in our country with the rapid growth of interest in cybernetics. Since the 70s, public administration began to develop as an independent area of social science, touching, but not merging, with "neighboring" scientific areas. One of these areas - the general theory of social management was presented in the works of V.G. Afanasyev, K.I. Varlamova, D.M. Gvishiani, A.M. Omarova, Zh.T. Toshchenko, N.M. Slepenkova, V.G. Smolkov.

In general, the process of formation of the science of management in our country is in fact just beginning and is characterized by a persistent search for a paradigm of public administration suitable for Russia.

On the issue of the scientific foundations of the system of administrative-public administration in our country, the opinions of scientists today are divided. Some emphasize the uniqueness of the forms of Russian statehood and believe that the experience of Western countries cannot serve as a basis for the formation of a national concept of public service. Another point of view absolutizes the importance of foreign experience in the field of administrative and public administration. Studying Western experience, it is very easy to adopt the external forms and attributes of the state, but it is very difficult to ensure the effective functioning of the relevant institutions.

Therefore, when creating a scientific concept of Russian public administration, it is necessary to analyze, study and select all the best and most advanced accumulated by world science in the field of administrative and public administration, but always taking into account national traditions in this complex area of human activity.

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	Explore the features of the evolution of the system of state and municipal government; determine the specifics of the structure of state and municipal government in Russia; perform an analysis of the activities and features of management in the MU "Department for Civil Defense and Emergencies of the City of Norilsk".
10568.		Solutions in the system of state and municipal government	477.67KB
	LEARNING OBJECTIVES: formation and development of fundamentally new views on the process of development and implementation management decisions; providing students with the assimilation of the criteria for the conditions of technology for the adoption and implementation of decisions, methods of analysis, forecasting, optimization and economic justification of managerial decisions. Fundamentals of Management Decision Making: Textbook. Development of management decisions. The essence and content of management decisions.
4944.		Interaction between the state and municipal levels of government	36.67KB
	The concept and signs of municipal government self-government. Mechanisms of interaction between state and municipal government. Organizational forms interaction between public authorities and bodies local government...
17817.		Organization of state and municipal management for solving environmental problems	47.38KB
	General characteristics of environmental activities in the system of functions of local government. The concept of the environmental ecological function of local self-government. Implementation of the powers of local governments in the field of environmental protection. At present, the issue of environmental protection is very acute and relevant, and the solution of this issue is largely entrusted to local governments.
15662.		The study of the main scientific schools of state and municipal government	48.72KB
	Prehistory of the emergence of state and municipal government. Correlation between the development of management science and public administration. Approaches to the classification of public administration schools. German School of Public Administration
1246.			479.21KB
	The goal of public administration is that final or specific intermediate point on the way to achieving a certain state of society or its subsystem in accordance with the programmed prospects for its development. However, the goals of public administration reflect their horizontal cut and do not give a clear idea of their subordination. The idea to present the system of goals of public administration in the form of a tree rooted in the social soil of society was born quite a long time ago. The subject is the features of goal-setting and formation ...
7228.		INTRODUCTION TO THE ECONOMY OF THE STATE AND MUNICIPAL SECTORS	25.56KB
	The activities of the public administration sector that provide the relevant public goods can be combined into three large groups: the provision of services of a general civil nature public services of a general purpose defense public order and security activities for the development of the economy activities in the social sphere. Along with this, reproductive processes in the public sector are subject to consideration, relationships with other sectors of the economy and foreign economic relations. They must...
13252.		Efficiency of state land supervision in a municipal district (on the example of the Saratov municipal district)	179.11KB
	To reveal the essence, legal framework of the institution of state land supervision; analyze the normative content of the competence of state bodies and officials authorized to exercise state land supervision; on the example of the Saratov municipal district, show the main activities of the Department of Management Federal Service state registration of cadastre and cartography in the Saratov region...
16478.		Autonomous institutions as a new type of state (municipal) cultural institution	11.95KB
	On the other hand, the indicator of the number of budgetary institutions transferred to the status of autonomous ones is included in the list of indicators approved by the President of the Russian Federation to assess the effectiveness of the activities of the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local governments2. When the BU is transferred to the AU, the following remains: the body that performs the functions of the founder; type of ownership; organizational and legal form; goals and types of core activities; previously assigned to BU property and land plot; guaranteed funding from the appropriate budget....
5106.		The main types of study of management systems: marketing, sociological, economic (their features). Main directions of improvement of control systems	178.73KB
	In the conditions of the dynamism of modern production and social structure, management must be in a state of continuous development, which today cannot be achieved without exploring the ways and possibilities of this development.