Porcelain, history, varieties, technology, marking. Types and distinctive features of faience and porcelain Soft porcelain that

The term "porcelain" refers to a wide range of ceramic products that are made at high temperatures. Their distinguishing features are a smooth surface and low porosity. These properties of porcelain are widely demanded to this day. It is difficult to find any industry or National economy wherever it is used.

The most common decorative porcelain, as well as chemical glassware, dental crowns and electrical insulators. Usually white or off-white, for “baking” this wonderful material arrives as an unpresentable piece of ceramics, which will acquire its usual form only after roasting in high-temperature ovens.

Advantages of Chinese services

In this article, we will discuss the properties and types of porcelain. You will understand why this material was so popular all over the world that huge expeditions were equipped to buy it. For a beautiful service, which today you can buy in any store, then you could get killed.

Oddly enough, but the products of Chinese masters with today's ceramics are only relatives, but not direct ones. To be convinced of this, it is enough to recall the basic properties of porcelain that came out of the workshops of the Celestial Empire. The materials are very similar to each other: both modern and ancient porcelain can be glazed or "natural". But simple ceramics are much softer. And you can't make a high-quality service out of it.

Why is this happening?

Such properties of porcelain as strength and heat resistance are the result of high temperatures at which true Chinese ceramics are produced. It is produced at a temperature of 2,650 degrees Fahrenheit (1,454 degrees Celsius). Compare that to 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (1,204 degrees Celsius) for plain porcelain. Since the second material has more low quality, it is not used in the chemical industry and other technological branches of science. In addition, it is Chinese porcelain of the highest quality that is transparent to the light. Rough ceramics cannot give such an effect.

Spy passions

"Hard paste", or true porcelain, first appeared in China in times (618-907). But really high-quality products, in their properties in no way inferior to modern ones, became known to the world only during the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368). Early Chinese porcelain consisted of kaolin (china clay) and pegmatite, a rough type of granite.

It was unknown to European potters until the import of Chinese equipment during the Middle Ages. Europeans tried to duplicate the properties of porcelain, but did not succeed in this matter. Since they were not able to analyze its chemical composition, the products they produced resembled elegant, fragile and at the same time durable dishes only externally. It turned out like that. Real spy wars unfolded in order to get the secret of true porcelain production, but the Chinese kept their secret more than life.

Why was this material so popular? Reason - great physical properties porcelain. It is stronger than ordinary ceramics, has a high thermal conductivity, which makes it possible to brew excellent tea in teapots from it. In addition, due to the glaze, porcelain has an extremely low soiling, staining only under the influence of synthetic pigments. Cups from ancient Chinese sets retain their whiteness after many centuries.

Erzatsy

After mixing glass with tin oxide to make an opaque material, European artisans tried to combine clay and these alternatives became known as "soft paste", or faux porcelain. But two unpleasant circumstances upset me: all these materials turned out to be too soft, it was impossible to make really thin, elegant products from them, and the production costs were too high. In a word, the properties of "ersatz-type" porcelain were very far from perfect.

There is evidence that our masters also mastered the art of producing true porcelain, but all the secrets of Russian ceramics were lost during the period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, when entire cities were burned along with all their inhabitants. The British were also able to achieve a certain breakthrough. They created a "bone" kind of material.

But what are the main properties of which provided him with incredible popularity in old Europe?

History of creation

In 1707, two Germans named Ehrenfried Walther von Chimhaus and Johann Friedrich Bottger discover a more “sane” production method that uses clay and finely ground feldspar. In the 17th century, English artisans learned through experiments that porcelain could be obtained almost identical to Chinese porcelain by adding finely ground burnt bones to this mixture.

And later it turned out that English version allows the production of transparent ceramics at much lower temperatures, which significantly reduces the cost of production. In addition, porcelain from Foggy Albion fought much worse, was much stronger. So it is not surprising that the British soon filled up half of the Old and almost the entire New World with their services.

What are the properties of bone china? Firstly, products made from it are distinguished by high strength with low weight and thin-walled. Secondly, this type of ceramics cannot be used in the chemical industry, since the substances in its composition react with acids and alkalis.

Raw material

As we have already said, the main components of this material are extremely simple: clay, feldspar, minerals with calcium content. Still various companies compete with each other, as it was quickly established that the properties of porcelain and faience can be radically changed by adding new elements to its composition. Of course, if the experience is successful.

Even though the composition of the clay varies depending on where it is mined, it still turns into glass (which makes the final product smooth) only at extremely high temperatures. But this is true only for those cases when clays are not mixed with materials whose vitrification threshold is lower. Unlike glass, however, clay is thermally stable, meaning it retains its shape even when heated to a high temperature.

So this material is really unique because it combines the low porosity of glass with the stability and relative strength of simple ceramics. Kaolin, a hydroaluminosilicate, has been used as the main type of raw material at all times. (containing aluminum silicate) and flint, a type of hard quartz, are extremely important ingredients in any type of porcelain. They melt during heating, binding the material into a single whole.

Quartz - the "heart" of porcelain

This is a guarantee of strength. The properties of porcelain (and its use) are largely due to this very characteristic: it breaks poorly (when compared with glass), and small distances between particles ensure the impermeability of the material to air, water, and other compounds.

Quartz is an "alloy" of oxygen and silicon, the two most abundant elements in the earth's crust. He has three functional forms: directly quartz (crystals), opal (amorphous variety) and sand (mixed, dirty fraction). In general, quartz has long been used in handicraft production. Porcelain may also contain alumina and steatite, more commonly known as "soapstone".

Manufacturing process

After the raw material is selected and weighed, it goes to production. First, it is cleaned and ground to very fine fractions. After that, all components are mixed in the required proportion, depending both on the production conditions and on the characteristics of the final products. As soon as the latter are formed, they can be sent to the kiln immediately, or they are pre-cleaned and then covered with a layer of glaze.

Of course, crushed glass first acts in its role. And only after that, future vases, cups, toilet bowls and dental crowns are sent to the furnace mouth. Now let's look at each stage separately. After all, the properties of porcelain and its application depend on their success!

Crushing of raw materials

Perhaps this is one of the most important operations, since the quality of the final product depends on the thoroughness of its implementation. Crushing is carried out using huge mechanical drum crushers. On the second pass, the particle size is brought to 0.25 cm. To turn the feedstock into fine dust, special ball crushers are used. These are huge steel cylinders filled with metal balls. When the whole structure rotates, the particles of raw materials turn into a homogeneous mass of extremely fine grinding.

Cleaning and mixing

The mixture is passed through fine filters, and then fed to a special "conveyor", which is an inclined steel sheets. They vibrate, as a result of which the raw materials are not only automatically mixed, but also sorted, since the largest particles are pushed up. If a wetted material supply is required, water is automatically sprayed into the line.

Sometimes filters with powerful magnets are used, since the latter can remove the smallest iron impurities. The latter, if it gets into the finished product, will give it an undesirable red tint. After that, the finished products are sent to the kiln, where they are fired at the temperatures already indicated by us.

On what conditions of production can the properties of products depend?

It should be noted that during the final firing, many processes take place, on which the properties directly depend. Firstly, all carbon organic impurities are burned, excess water is evaporated, various gaseous fractions come out of the thickness of the future product. If at the same time the temperature is not brought to 1100 degrees Celsius, then silicon and other components of the glaze will not be able to melt, which means they will not form a smooth and chemically neutral layer on the ceramic surface.

In addition, these connections are necessary to reduce the distance between the particles of materials, to more reliably connect them to each other. After the desired density is reached, the product is cooled, as a result of which the glaze “pulls together”, becomes smooth and especially durable.

Results

So why are we describing all this? The thing is that the properties of this material are closely dependent on the features and conditions of its manufacture. For example, strength depends on the percentage of feldspar content in the mass, and the number of pores in porcelain is the smaller, the more feldspar. As the quartz and the residue obtained from the decomposition of the clay substance dissolve in the glass, the skeleton of the porcelain material becomes weaker and the deformations increase. Depending on the fineness of grinding of quartz, composition of the mass, temperature and duration of firing, the composition of the vitreous phase includes from 15 to 40% of all quartz introduced into the mass. The more it is, the porcelain is thinner and "airier".

Properties as dielectrics are characterized mainly by resistance to the passage of electric current in the material and on the surface of the insulator. Distinguish between specific volume and specific surface resistance of porcelain.

In addition, it is of great practical importance Chemical properties porcelain. More precisely, their absence. Glazed ceramics with addition a large number feldspar and quartz is chemically neutral. Do you think why the mortars of pharmacists and chemists are made of this material? It is much stronger than glass, but it does not react.

The current state of affairs

Today, ceramics (and porcelain in particular) is experiencing a rebirth. It turned out that these materials can be used in the production of various types of microelectronics. The importance of this for modern civilization does not need to be explained. Scientists also found that when certain additives are added, the strength of porcelain increases exponentially. Currently, even promising research is underway in the field of creating new types of armor based on it. So not toilet bowls alone!

Finally, this material is becoming increasingly important in medicine. Various prostheses and magnificent dental crowns - the demand for them is increasing every year. So it will remain relevant for a very long time.

Dishes are made from the most different materials- glass, ceramics, wood, faience, porcelain and even plastic. The most demanded are products for the production of which porcelain, faience and ceramics were used. Many are interested in the question of how to distinguish these materials from each other, and this is not difficult to do.

China

Faience and porcelain - material differences:

Porcelain is a ceramic that is characterized by impermeability to air and water, but at the same time having a slight thickness. What is ceramics? The answer is simple - this is a material that is produced by sintering clay with some mineral additives. As for the porcelain itself, its main components are considered to be kaolin (clay), feldspar, etc. The porcelain object has an ideal white color. On the surface of porcelain, it is impossible to see the pores, since there are none. This is what makes porcelain durable, making it an ideal raw material for tableware.
Earthenware is a material that resembles porcelain in its properties, however, a faience product, unlike porcelain, will have small pores. What is the difference between porcelain and faience? The latter absorbs a certain amount of moisture (about 12%), while this property is not typical for porcelain. Faience is 85% clay, which explains the property of the material to absorb water. It is for this reason that all faience products are glazed.

Porcelain and faience: types

Before you figure out how to distinguish porcelain from faience, you should learn about the types of these materials. There are such types of porcelain:

Hard: obtained by double annealing at temperatures from 1350 to 1450 degrees, which makes it possible to obtain an ultra-strong material for making dishes. Conditionally hard porcelain is divided into the following types: economic, electrical, chemical and artistic. As for the groups of hard porcelain, they conditionally distinguish between European (clay predominates in its composition) and oriental (it is fired at a more gentle temperature regime, and the porcelain itself contains less kaolin).
Soft: this porcelain is obtained by firing at temperatures up to 1350 degrees. Its color and characteristics are in many ways similar to hard porcelain, but the soft material is more susceptible to temperature changes. All soft porcelain is divided into European, French and English.

As for faience, it happens:

alumina;
fireclay;
lime;
feldspar.

It is no secret that porcelain is more expensive than faience, which is what unscrupulous sellers of products made from these materials use. In order not to fall for the tricks of deceivers, you should find out how these types of raw materials for the production of dishes can differ.

faience swan

Differences

Porcelain or faience - how to distinguish them:

You should take the product (it can be a mug, plate, figurine, etc.) and pay attention to its rim. If the unglazed edge is white, then it is highly likely that the item in question is made from porcelain.
Then the test object should be examined in the light. If it is translucent, then this indicates that porcelain was used for its manufacture. As for faience, it does not have such a characteristic. If a bulk product is being checked, then attention should be paid to its bottom. The absence of glaze on it will indicate that the product is made of porcelain.
You should take the product and lightly hit it with a metal object. Porcelain will make a clear and sonorous sound. As for faience, the sound coming from hitting it will be muffled.
Over time, earthenware may lose its attractiveness - cracks form on products made from such material. For porcelain, this phenomenon is uncharacteristic.
You can estimate the weight of the product. If it is small, but heavy enough, then this will indicate that the product is made of faience.
Products made of real porcelain are not covered with paint, as it distorts the natural white color of the material. Faience dishes are almost all colored and motley.

Dishes and decor items made of porcelain, in contrast to earthenware, have a high cost. In order not to make a mistake when buying porcelain products, preference should be given to goods offered under well-known brands.

Ceramics is a category of materials that includes porcelain and faience. These are two fired products of the same type, similar in their external data, but at the same time fundamentally different in physical qualities. What are these differences?

Porcelain

Any ceramic product is obtained by high-temperature sintering of clay (its mixtures) with mineral additives and inorganic components. If a mixture of plastic clay, kaolin ( White clay), quartz and feldspar (silicate) with an equal or greater percentage of minerals, porcelain is obtained as a result of firing. This is a high-strength, non-porous, thin, translucent (if porcelain is brought to the light, it will be translucent), heat-resistant material, which differs from others in its light weight.

porcelain figurine

Faience

But if a mixture of clay (80-85% of the total mass), quartz, feldspar and a small amount of kaolin participated in the sintering process of ceramics, then faience is obtained as a result of firing. It is a finely porous material fired at temperatures up to 1280°C. The presence of pores makes faience more fragile, rough and water-absorbing (about 12%) material, which must be covered with a thick layer of glaze in order to eliminate imperfections. It is heavy, has a matte finish and is opaque.

Crockery

Differences

Depending on the proportions of the components of the mixture listed above, technologists can obtain soft and hard porcelain. Products made of soft porcelain are fired in a kiln at temperatures below 1350°C, while those made of hard porcelain are fired at 1350°C - 1450°C. The soft variety is more fragile and sensitive to sudden temperature changes, it is conditionally classified as porous ceramics (there is a small number of small pores), the glaze of which is destroyed by mechanical stress. Because of these physical characteristics, soft porcelain is only used for valuable pieces of art, not tableware.

hard varieties porcelain contain up to 66% kaolin (but not less than 47%). This variety refers to dense non-porous ceramics, which makes it more resistant to physical impact. The material is also transparent, "weightless", has a smooth white surface. Hard varieties are used for the production of dishes, decorative items (vases, dishes), electrical insulators and even plumbing. But there is also a special material "biscuit" - a hard type of porcelain that is not covered with glaze. It is a matte material used to make sculptures and ornaments.

Any porcelain mass is always white, since when dyes are added to the mixture, it is impossible to achieve the required transparency, thinness and, at the same time, the strength of the material. All colored products are painted with special paints on glaze after firing. Porcelain "sounds high" when struck lightly.

The mass for making earthenware is white, but often colored dyes are added to it, which makes it possible to produce products of any shades. In addition, silicon, quartz, lime, feldspar or fireclay, magnesia, carbon dioxide can be added to the mixture. Depending on the components, varieties are also distinguished, for example, alumina and lime faience. They also affect the quality of the material, its porosity, fragility, water absorption. Due to the richness of the varieties of material, faience is used to produce dishes, tiles, tiles, figurines and so on.

Findings site

Porcelain has unique and valuable decorative characteristics.
Faience absorbs moisture, which makes it very sensitive to temperature changes and less hygienic.
Porcelain is lighter and at the same time mechanically stronger than faience.
Faience is less valuable because the production process is less labor intensive and the materials used are not as expensive.
Faience is more practical and decoratively diverse than porcelain.

What is porcelain

Porcelain is a special type of ceramics (that is, clay products with special additives that have been fired), which has a number of remarkable properties. First of all, porcelain is impervious to liquids and gases, which makes it possible to produce porcelain tableware. It has high mechanical strength, chemical and thermal resistance and electrical insulating properties.

Porcelain is used not only for the manufacture of high-quality tableware and artistic and decorative items, but also for the creation of sanitary ware, electrical and radio engineering parts, corrosion-resistant chemical technology devices, low-frequency insulators and other utilitarian items.

History of porcelain

Porcelain in English language not for nothing is often called the word china, because its homeland is China. It is believed that various types of ceramics were produced in China as early as 10,000 years ago, but real porcelain did not appear until the 7th century AD. e. With the diligence inherent in Eastern people, the secret of porcelain was kept in the strictest confidence for many centuries, and only at the beginning of the 18th century did porcelain production begin in Europe.

The discovery of European porcelain took place in 1708 by the Saxon experimenters Chirnhaus and Böttger. Prior to this event, many attempts had been made in Europe to unravel the secret of Chinese porcelain, but the result was materials closer to glass and only remotely resembling porcelain. Johann Friedrich Böttger (1682-1719) began to conduct experiments on the creation of porcelain, which in 1707/1708 led to the creation of "rothes Porcelain" (red porcelain) - fine ceramics, jasper porcelain.

However, "real" porcelain was yet to be obtained. Chemistry as a science in its modern sense did not yet exist. Neither in China or Japan, nor in Europe, raw materials for the production of ceramics could yet be determined in terms of chemical composition. The same was true for the technology used. The process of porcelain production is carefully documented in the travel notes of missionaries and merchants, but the technological processes used could not be deduced from these reports.

The secret of making porcelain

Understanding the basic principle behind the porcelain manufacturing process, namely the need to fire the mixture various kinds soils - those that fuse easily and those that fuse more difficultly - arose as a result of long systematic experiments based on experience and knowledge of geological, metallurgical and "alchemical-chemical" relationships. It is believed that the white porcelain experiments went hand in hand with the rothes porcelain because just two years later, in 1709 or 1710, the recipe for white porcelain was already determined.

Contemporary porcelain

Now porcelain is made in factories on an industrial scale. Porcelain is usually obtained by high-temperature firing of a fine mixture of kaolin, feldspar, quartz, and plastic clay (such Porcelain is called feldspar).

The term "porcelain" in the English literature is often applied to technical ceramics: zircon, alumina, lithium, calcium boron and other porcelain, which reflects the high density of the corresponding special ceramic material.

Hard and soft porcelain

Porcelain is also distinguished depending on the composition of the porcelain mass into soft and hard. Soft porcelain differs from hard porcelain not in hardness, but in the fact that when firing soft porcelain, more liquid phase is formed than when firing hard porcelain, and therefore the risk of deformation of the workpiece during firing is greater.

Hard porcelain is richer in alumina and poorer in fluxes. To obtain the necessary translucency and density, it requires a higher firing temperature (up to 1450 °C). Soft porcelain is more diverse in chemical composition. The firing temperature reaches up to 1300 °C. Soft porcelain is used mainly for the manufacture of art products, and hard porcelain is usually used in technology (electrical insulators) and in everyday life (dishes).

One of the types of soft porcelain is bone china, which includes up to 50% bone ash, as well as quartz, kaolin, etc., and which is distinguished by its special whiteness, thinness and translucency.

Methods for decorating porcelain

Porcelain today is painted in several ways: underglaze painting and intraglaze painting of porcelain with high-temperature firing and overglaze painting with low-temperature firing of porcelain. When painting underglaze porcelain, paints are applied directly to biscuit porcelain. Then the porcelain product is covered with a transparent glaze.

Overglaze painting of porcelain with high-temperature and low-temperature firing involves the application of paints on an already fired glazed surface of a porcelain product.

The firing of high-temperature overglaze porcelain paints (or intraglaze paints, as they are also called) takes place at 820 - 870 C. At this temperature, the paint eats into the glaze and later better resists the mechanical and chemical effects of acidic foods and alcohol. With this method of painting porcelain, a much richer set of colors is used.

Among the paints for painting porcelain, a group of paints prepared using noble metals stands out. The most common paints using gold, less commonly used silver and platinum paint. Overglaze gold paints are most commonly used for low-temperature firing of porcelain, although there are also intraglaze gold paints.

Porcelain is painted with matte or brilliant gilding. In both cases, it is a viscous black or brown liquid containing 12-32% gold for brilliant porcelain gilding, or 52% fine gold dust and chemically dissolved gold for dull porcelain gilding. During the firing of porcelain, the brilliant gilding begins to sparkle and does not require additional processing in the future. Matte gilding after firing porcelain remains matte and polished with fiberglass made of plastic or sea sand, an agate "pencil". The thickness of matte porcelain gilding is 6 times that of shiny porcelain gilding, and thus the matte porcelain gilding is more decorative and stable. Except gold, matte gold paint contains other precious metals that add color to the paint.

History of porcelain in the Russian Empire

AT international literature The issue of the emergence of porcelain production in Russia is covered in different ways. Often, Russian porcelain and the porcelain industry in Russia are completely ignored, despite their originality and significance in the history of world technology and art.

Attempts to organize the production of porcelain or faience in Russia began under Peter the Great, a great connoisseur of it. On the instructions of Peter 1, Russian foreign agent Yuri Kologrivy tried to find out the secret of porcelain production in Meissen and failed. Despite this, in 1724 the Russian merchant Grebenshchikov founded a faience factory in Moscow at his own expense; it also carried out experiments on the manufacture of porcelain, but they did not receive proper development.

The first manufactory was founded in 1744 by Empress Elizabeth. She was invited to St. Petersburg from Sweden I.-Kr. Gunger, who had previously contributed to institutions in Vienna and Venice. However, he could not resist here, and in 1748 he was released.

After all the failures mentioned earlier, there was only one way, the most difficult and long, but the only reliable one: to organize a search for systematic scientific and technological work, which as a result was supposed to lead to the development of porcelain production technology. For this, a person was needed who had considerable training, possessing sufficient technical initiative and ingenuity. Such was Dmitry Ivanovich Vinogradov, a native of the city of Suzdal.

In 1736 D.I. Vinogradov with his comrades - M.V. Lomonosov and R. Raiser - at the suggestion of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and by imperial decree was sent "to the German lands to study, among other sciences and arts, especially the most important chemistry and metallurgy, to this matter, as far as mining or manuscript art. D.I. Vinogradov studied mainly in Saxony, where there were then “the most glorious manuscript and smelting factories in the entire German state” and where the most skillful teachers and masters of this craft worked at that time. He stayed abroad until 1744 and returned to Russia with certificates and certificates of awarding him the title of “bergmeister”.

Vinogradov was faced with the task of independently resolving all issues related to the creation of a new production. On the basis of physical and chemical ideas about porcelain, he had to develop the composition of the porcelain mass and develop technological methods and methods for making the mass of real porcelain. And one more task arose - the development of glaze, as well as recipes and technologies for the manufacture of ceramic paints of different colors for painting on porcelain. More than a thousand different experiments were performed by D. I. Vinogradov during his work at the “porcelain factory”, as it was then called.

In the works of Vinogradov on the organization of porcelain production in Russia, his search for a “recipe” for porcelain mass is of considerable interest. These works refer mainly to 1746-1750, when he intensively searched for the optimal composition of the mixture, improved the recipe, conducting technological research on the use of clays from various deposits, changing the firing mode, etc. The earliest of all discovered information on the composition of the porcelain mass is dated January 30, 1746. Probably, since that time, Vinogradov began systematic experimental work to find the optimal composition of Russian porcelain and continued it for 12 years, until his death, i.e. until August 1758

From 1747, Vinogradov began to manufacture trial items from his experimental masses, as can be judged from individual exhibits stored in museums and bearing his brand and date of manufacture (1749 and later). In 1752, the first stage of Vinogradov's work on creating the recipe for the first Russian porcelain and organizing the technological process of its production was completed. It should be noted that when compiling the recipe, Vinogradov tried to encrypt it as much as possible. He did not use Russian, but used Italian, Latin, Hebrew, and German words, also using their abbreviations. This is explained by the fact that Vinogradov was given special instructions about the need to classify the work as far as possible.

Vinogradov's success in making porcelain at the porcelain factory at that time was already so significant that on March 19, 1753, an announcement appeared in the St.

In addition to formulating porcelain masses and studying clays from various deposits, Vinogradov developed glaze compositions, technological methods and instructions for washing clays at deposits, conducted tests of various types of fuel for firing porcelain, drafted and built furnaces and furnaces, invented formulas for porcelain paints and solved many related issues. We can say that he had to develop the entire technological process of porcelain production himself and, in addition, at the same time prepare assistants, successors and employees for himself. various qualifications and profile. As a result of “diligent work” (as he himself assessed his work), original Russian porcelain was created, created independently of foreign countries, not by chance, not blindly, but through independent scientific work.

The production of the first period (until about 1760) was limited to small items, usually of the Meissen type. With the reign of Catherine the Great (since 1762), who invited foreign fashion designers for artistic purposes, having replaced a significant part of the staff, an artistic upsurge began. The admiration for French culture also affects porcelain production: the influence of Sevres is noticeable in the forms and noble decors of luxurious tableware. Since about 1780, François-Dominique Rachette, a herald of mature classicism, has been active in the field of plastic arts in St. Petersburg. Under Catherine, one still finds here and there a local tradition, under Paul its trace is completely lost, and the products take on a pronounced French character. A somewhat declining trend at this time is followed by a new upsurge under Alexander I; however, in the third quarter of the 19th century, it was no longer possible to prevent artistic decline.

The private porcelain factory of the Englishman Francis Gardner, founded in 1754 in Verbilki near Moscow, competed with the tsarist manufactory for the quality of goods. In 1780 it was transferred to Tver, and in 1891 it passed into the possession of M. S. Kuznetsov. The plant had a very wide range of products, including those made for the yard. Dinnerware was produced with paintings predominantly in gray-green and light green tones in various combinations with red or light yellow.

Soviet propaganda porcelain

During the Civil War, when the country did not have enough paper even for newspapers and posters, the revolutionary government resorted to the most unusual shapes propaganda. A unique phenomenon in the art of 1918-1921. became propaganda porcelain.

At the State (former Imperial) Porcelain Factory in Petrograd, there were large stocks of unpainted products, which it was decided to use not just as dishes, but primarily as a means of revolutionary agitation. Instead of the usual flowers and shepherdesses, invocative texts of revolutionary slogans appeared: “Proletarians of all countries, unite!”, “Land to the working people!”, “Whoever is not with us, is against us” and others, which, under the skillful brush of artists, formed into a bright decorative ornament.

A group of factory artists headed by Sergei Vasilievich Chekhonin (1878-1936) worked on the creation of works of propaganda porcelain. Before the revolution, he was a member of the World of Art association and was known as a master of book illustrations, a connoisseur of various styles, a connoisseur and collector of folk art. Chekhonin also successfully applied his brilliant mastery of the art of type and the complex language of ornament in porcelain.

Famous artists P. V. Kuznetsov, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, N. I. Altman were engaged in the development of sketches for the paintings of propaganda porcelain. Their works are distinguished by high graphic skill. Already in the first works, new symbols of the young Soviet Republic appeared: hammer and sickle, gear.

The subjects of the paintings by the artist Alexandra Vasilievna Shekatikhina-Pototskaya (1892-1967) are scenes of traditional folk life and characters from Russian fairy tales. In 1921 the Civil War ended. With joyful, bright colors, with a wide energetic brush, the artist painted the heroes of a new, now peaceful life - a sailor and his girlfriend on the May Day holiday, a commissar who changed his rifle for a folder with documents, a guy singing "The Internationale". The artists responded to the famine that broke out in the Volga region in 1921 by creating a whole series of works: “To help the starving population of the Volga region!”, “Hunger”, “Hungry”.

Soviet propaganda porcelain was exhibited at foreign exhibitions and was exported. These works occupy a worthy place in the collections of the largest museums in Russia and other countries, are desirable for collectors.

By the way

Some manufacturers mark their porcelain items on the bottom with the designation “CHINA. Made in——". Buyers are often confused by this phrase. But connoisseurs know the answer for sure: "CHINA" is the international designation for high-quality bone china. It came from the distorted title of the Chinese emperor, who in ancient times owned a monopoly on the production of table china. Sometimes the words Fine Bone China, which means real bone china, are on the stamp of porcelain manufacturing plants. Now bone china is more popular than ever. This is also true for Royal Fine China tableware. With its pure white color, transparency and lightness, but at the same time, unsurpassed strength, bone china has firmly taken a leading place on the shelves of true connoisseurs and even collectors of porcelain. It is believed that there are no analogues to bone china in its qualities and strength all over the world.

According to British quality standards, porcelain is called Bone China if it contains more than 35% bone ash. Bone china with its milky white color, transparency and weightlessness has gained an excellent reputation and a leading position in sales in the world market.

The inscription Fine Bone China means real bone china.

Since ancient times, mankind has used faience to make plates and cups. And in the modern world, ceramic dishes are considered almost indispensable. Although the style of products, the technology of their production is constantly changing, but the material itself remains unchanged. What is faience, and what features does it have - let's try to figure it out in this article.

What is faience

Faience is a material from which dishes, interior items, etc. are made. It is characterized by fragility, density and fine porosity. The name of this material comes from the Italian city of Faenza, which was famous for the production of ceramic products.

Faience is mainly used for the production of dishes, souvenirs and various ceramic gifts. Figurines of this type differ from porcelain figurines in brightness and saturation of colors and look very fabulous. As for cutlery, faience dishes are most often made in a simple form and look ordinary. It is perfect for everyday meals with a simple table setting.

Varieties of faience

Depending on the composition and amount of impurities, several types of faience are distinguished:

Lime faience - in addition to quartz and white clay, the composition includes chalk and dolomite. Thanks to these additives, products are made much easier and faster.
Soft faience - various fluxes are added to the traditional composition - substances that form fusible compounds during thermal processing.
Feldspar faience - it contains a certain amount (rock-forming minerals).
Hard faience is the most durable material. Such products are characterized by high mechanical characteristics. Hard faience is fired at very high temperatures.

History of faience

Mankind knew what faience was, even 4 thousand years BC. e. The composition of the first ceramics was slightly different from that produced today. In Mesopotamia and Egypt, faience products were made from quartz pebbles with impurities of soda, limestone, copper and iron ore.

Much later faience appeared in the Old World. At first it was produced under the name majolica in some cities of Italy. Then earthenware High Quality produced in France, in the city of Saint-Porche.

In Russia, faience became famous in the 18th century. Entire factories for the production of ceramic products worked in Moscow. dispersed among the population at a rapid pace and enjoyed incredible popularity. Products from different factories differed from each other. So, the masters of the Grebenshchikov manufactory painted dishes on raw enamel. The faience of the Kuznetsov Association was distinguished by multi-colored glazes, three-dimensional reliefs or printed drawings. The Gzhel factory produced products mainly in blue, as well as with gold painting.

Konakovo faience

A great development in the production of faience products was made by M. S. Kuznetsov, who bought out a porcelain factory in the city of Konakovo in 1870. He produced mainly faience dishes with hand painted or printed designs. About 20 years later, Kuznetsov began to produce dishes from semi-faience, porcelain and ceramics. Since the mid 20s. XX century, the plant began to attract the best artists and masters of painting to create beautiful drawings on dishes and creations of animalistic sculptures. Their works were in demand, which, in turn, contributed to the expansion of production.

Over time, the artists managed to create a certain style for their products: faience objects, organic in form, played with cheerful bright painting and dripping glaze. Konakovo faience was exported to many countries. Some items have survived to the present day.

Semikarakorsk ceramics

Semikarakorsky faience is a bright artistic phenomenon of the Don land. Rostov region has been making ceramics since ancient times. Many archaeological finds testify to the existence of handicraft pottery workshops in Semikarakorsk since pre-Christian times.

The artistic style of Semikarakorsky faience is distinguished by original painting, natural scenes, and historical motifs. Masters in their drawings managed to convey all the beauty and power of their region, Don traditions, the spirit of the Cossacks.

Due to the high level of artistic skill, Semikarakorsky faience is considered a work of art all over the world.

Types of faience products

Today, faience is used almost everywhere. This is due not only to its low cost, but also to the ease of manufacture of such products. Most often, dishes are made from faience: salad bowls, plates for snacks and main courses, deep bowls, herring, bread stands and confectionery, gravy boats, bouillon vases and tureens, cups for hot drinks, milk jugs, mugs, salt shakers and sugar bowls. Often today in stores you can see a large assortment of architectural elements made of faience, facing tiles, toilet bowls. Such interior items testify not only to the good taste of the owner, but also to his financial well-being.

How earthenware is made

To create faience, two components are necessarily used: quartz and refractory. The manufacturing process of a ceramic product begins with the processing of the latter. So, the clay mass is fired several times at a temperature of 1050 ºС, during which it should change color. Then, at a temperature of 950 ºС, a colored or transparent glaze is applied. At the final stage, re-firing is done. As a result of such an impact, the faience mass remains porous and suitable for decorating with drawings. If faience is fired at low temperatures, it will retain intense underglaze colors better.

Thus, the material goes through many stages of processing until the finished faience is obtained. A photo of the plate making process illustrates the subtlety of this process.

Faience plumbing

Recently, faience sanitary ware has become increasingly popular. Its production takes place according to a different technology than the manufacture of dishes or figurines. To create a high strength of the material, the products are coated with a special glaze. With proper and careful operation, faience plumbing can last a long time, while it will look the same as at the time of purchase.

How to distinguish faience from porcelain

Many do not know how porcelain differs from earthenware, and are often confused, although there is a certain difference between them. Earthenware products are characterized by a low degree of whiteness, greater wall thickness and less strength. Finished items are distinguished by smooth shapes. Earthenware, compared to porcelain, is unable to retain heat for a long time. In addition, such products do not withstand high temperatures. If the dishes are washed in hot water, they may crack. Therefore, in many cases it is more practical to use porcelain cutlery.

To understand well how porcelain differs from faience, you can compare products made from these materials. The first and important difference is the sonority of the subject. It is necessary to tap lightly on the edge of the plate. The porcelain product will emit a long and distinct rumble. At the same time, faience will ring with a dull sound.

You can also identify faience by external signs. The dishes made of this ceramic do not transmit light at all. This is due to the fact that the products are fired at a relatively low temperature. A significant difference is the smooth bottom surface of the dishes. Sometimes you can see small depressions that formed during firing. In comparison, the bottom of porcelain is always rough.

The owners of faience dishes should treat it more sparingly and monitor its condition. If cracks appear, it is undesirable to use such products, since pathogenic bacteria penetrate into the pores of faience and can provoke the development of various diseases.

How to care for faience

Like any dishware, faience products require some care. Given all the properties of this material, it is very important to follow the rules of operation in order to extend the life of faience.

The most important rule is that faience products can only be washed in warm water, and rinsed in cold water. In the case of using hot water, small cracks form on the dishes, and the structure of the material is disturbed.

Detergents, especially powders, should not be used. To lighten darkened faience dishes, you can use a solution of baking soda or salt with vinegar in a 1: 1 ratio. Particular care should be taken with gold-plated products. The fact is that the drawings with which the faience products are decorated are covered with glaze. Therefore, after repeated washing, they remain in their original form. As for the gilding, it is applied over the glaze and gradually wears off from regular use. Therefore, the places decorated should not be rubbed strongly, it is better to use a soft cloth or sponge. You can remove stains from faience products with a cloth dipped in a small amount of ammonia.

Despite the advantages of porcelain, people still continue to buy faience. This stimulates ceramic manufacturers to produce new products for a wide variety of purposes.