Kravchenko a and history of management textbook. History of Management: Study Guide

Shevchuk Denis Alexandrovich

Experience in teaching various disciplines in the leading universities of Moscow (economic, legal, technical, humanitarian), two higher education(economic and legal), more than 30 publications (articles and books), Member of the Union of Lawyers of Moscow, Member of the Union of Journalists of Russia, Member of the Union of Journalists of Moscow, Scholarship holder of the Government of the Russian Federation, experience in banks, commercial and government structures (including leadership positions), Deputy CEO INTERFINANCE (credit broker, group of companies, www.deniskredit.ru and www.kreditbrokeripoteka.ru).

When writing the work, the author was given invaluable assistance by: Shevchuk Vladimir Aleksandrovich (three higher educations, experience in managerial work in banks, commercial and government structures), Shevchuk Nina Mikhailovna (two higher educations, experience in managerial work in commercial and government structures), Shevchuk Alexander Lvovich ( two higher educations, has great achievements in scientific and practical activities).

Topic 1.
Course Basics

The manager is a hired manager, the boss! If you do not have a single subordinate, you are not a manager, but a maximum specialist!

Denis Shevchuk

Management is indispensable integral part organizational structures, therefore, to define management, we will consider it as a field of activity endowed with certain functions, the purpose of which is to achieve the effectiveness of the acquisition, placement and use of human and material resources. Thus, management as a "teaching" is a structure of knowledge about the use of management, its functions, goals and scope. The purpose of our study is to consider the most significant periods in the evolution of management from the early non-scientific periods to the present day. The study of management, as well as the study of civilizations and cultures, is a study of the history of the continual change of views on the nature of work, man and the functioning of organizations.

The methodology of our study is analytical, synthetic and also interdisciplinary.

It is analytical in the study of people, their foundations, ideas and their influences. Its synthetic nature is manifested in the study of trends, directions and external forces that provide a conceptual framework for understanding people and their approaches to solving management problems. It is interdisciplinary in the sense that it goes beyond the traditional interpretations of management, incorporating elements of the history of economics, sociology, psychology, and the history of society in order to determine the place of management in the cultural and historical perspective. We seek to consider management in the context of its cultural environment and, thus, to understand not only what management was like, but also to explain why it developed in such a way.

The study of the history of management can bring the primary sources of ideas and approaches, trace their development, identify the prospect of development in a cultural environment. The study of the past makes the picture of the present more logical and concrete. Without the study of history, the individual has only his limited experience as the basis for ideas and actions. By tracing the origins and development of modern management concepts, we can better understand the analytical and conceptual tools of our profession. Studying the history of management not only provides an understanding of its national specifics, but also creates an idea of how the experience and knowledge of management theory can be applied in other organizations and cultures. There are many lessons in history for students of management.

Cultural environment. To understand the development of management theory and practice, it is necessary to define the cultural framework for their analysis. Management is not a closed activity, since the manager manages his organization and makes decisions under the influence of a certain set of cultural values and institutions. Thus, management has the characteristics of “ open system”, in which the manager affects his environment and, in turn, is influenced by it. Managerial thought does not develop in a cultural vacuum; the work of a manager is always influenced by the existing culture.

Culture is for our entire community the heritage of non-biological, humanly transmitted characteristic features and includes the economic, social and political behaviors associated with the individual. There are many approaches to the definition of culture or civilization. In a generalized form, the definition may also look different, but we will give only one of those available in science: “Culture is the totality and results of the transformative activity of man and society, embodied in material and spiritual values.” The definition of culture itself defines the scope of analysis, but does not provide methods for analyzing each particular culture. For this, it is still necessary to identify, if not all of its features, then at least those that are related to the organizational behavior of a person.

In the study of management, the content of culture will be limited to the economic, social and political ideas that influence the management of the organization. Human behavior is a product of past and present cultural forces, and the field of science such as management is also a product of economic, social, and political forces, past and present.

In practice, all these elements are in close relationship and interaction, and thus form a culture; here they have been separated and considered separately for ease of presentation and understanding. Further, our attention will be concentrated only on those areas of culture that are directly applicable to management: economic, political and social spheres.

The economic aspect of culture is the relationship of man to resources. Resources can be both natural and man-made; the term denotes both tangible objects and intangible efforts that, when used, are capable of achieving certain goals. Physical resources include land, buildings, raw materials, intermediate products, tools and equipment, and other tangible objects used by people and organizations. Human thoughts and efforts are also resources because they plan, assemble, shape, and represent other activities. the result of which is the production of products or services.

In every society there is a problem of limited resources and multiple economic goals. History knows many forms of mobilization of these scarce resources for the production and distribution of products and services. Heilbroner characterized these methods of resource use as traditional, command and market. The traditional method operates on the social principles of the past, when technology is mostly static, positions passed from generation to generation, Agriculture prevails over industry, and social and economic system remain practically unchanged. The command method is the imposition of the will of some central figure or organization on how resources should be distributed and used. An economic "commander in chief" could be a monarch, a fascist dictator, or a collectivist central planning organization. In this case, decisions about what to produce, what prices and wages should be, how goods and services should be distributed, are made centrally. Market Method, which Heilbroner refers to as a relatively recent phenomenon, relies on an impersonal network of forces and resource allocation decisions. prices, wages and interest rates are set through a process of bidding between those who have products and services and those who need them; all resources are thus put to the best use, and there is no need for any central authority to intervene.

Currently, modern societies show a mixture of elements of traditional, command and market systems. Our cultural heritage has been largely influenced by traditional and command economic philosophies as dominant. However, we will see later that market philosophy created the need for a formal, systematic development of managerial thought. The state of technology and the source of decisions about the allocation of resources in society largely depends on how the manager organizes his work.

In a traditionally oriented economy, the manager's role will be limited to previous guidelines, principles, in a team oriented economy he will be a simple executor of decisions made at the top, and the market system opens up opportunities for innovative use of resources to achieve multiple goals.

The social aspect lies in the relationship of people within a given cultural environment. A person does not live alone, but finds advantages in uniting in groups in order to survive or achieve his goals. In the formation of groups, the initial goal is to form an association of many people with different needs, abilities and values. Outside of this heterogeneity, any homogeneity must develop or the group will not survive. Thus, the participants create a kind of contract”, which defines some general rules and allows you to come to an agreement about how to behave in order to save the group. An unwritten but nonetheless binding contract would determine the possible behavior of other people and would allow an assessment of the possible response of each individual. It could include some agreement on how best to produce and coordinate activities to accomplish a given task, whether it be the creation of an economic product or the satisfaction of a social community.

Values, or cultural standards for determining the appropriateness of a given type of behavior, are another part of social interaction. So ethics in interpersonal relations is an eternal problem. Economic transactions, which have left a deep imprint on the public trust of a person in a person, are an integration part of the social contract. Values change over time and with culture. The manager's actions are influenced by the relationship between the individual and the group, as well as the social values that prevail in this type of culture.

The political aspect of culture can be viewed from the point of view of the relationship between man and the state; it includes political measures to establish social order and to protect life and property. The absence of state and order is called anarchy; although in this case there is some possibility for the protection of an intelligent person from an unintelligent person, the result will still be complete economic, social and political chaos. Where order begins, anarchy ends. In order to ensure order and stability, political institutions may adopt the most various forms ranging from a typical state to a monarchy or dictatorship. Political ideas about human nature change from seeing a person as a self-governing system to another extreme position, when one person or governing body imposes its will on others, believing that a person is unable or unwilling to manage himself. Concepts such as property, contracts and justice are key when considering the political aspect of culture. In a democracy, a person has the right to private property, the freedom to enter into or not to enter into contractual relationship and on the appellate system in justice. Under a dictatorship or monarchy, the right to own and use private property is severely limited, the law of contract is limited, and the justice system is at the whim of those in power. The cultural role of management is influenced by forms of government, the ability to own or not own property, the ability to enter into contracts to produce and distribute goods, and an appeals mechanism to resolve complaints.

Economic, social and political aspects are useful means analysis in the study of the development of managerial thought. The manager is influenced by the cultural environment around him, and the ways in which resources are allocated and used evolve along with changing views on economic, social and political institutions and values.

Most often in the literature, cultures are divided into eastern and western. A comparison of Western and Eastern cultures shows significant differences in many basic characteristics. At its core, Eastern culture is synthetic, created on the basis of not so much interaction as the coexistence of various religious and philosophical systems, which, from the point of view of their carriers, reflect views of the world from different points of view. Because of this, the inhabitants of the East are more inclined to recognize the right of other people to a different way of thinking, which gives them the mood to understand other cultures as soon as possible. Western culture arose on the basis of one, and monotheistic - Christian ideology. Europeans and Americans strive in their minds and management practices to find the only true universal course of action, which is determined by analytical approach. They are more inclined to recognize their way of life, if not the only right one, then at least the best one. Western culture is characterized by only one solution to the problem - an unequivocal victory over an opponent or environment.

Table 1. Comparison of characteristics of Japanese and Western cultures.

We also note the second characteristic: collectivism and individualism. The East is characterized by the traditional attitude of public consciousness to collectivism (belonging to any social group). Western culture is by its very nature individualistic, personality-oriented, the best modern evidence of which is the exclusive attention to human rights.

At the same time, within the framework of Eastern and Western cultures, there are national differences that reflect the specific features of their history. So, for example, considering the individualism of Western cultures, we find a certain difference in its manifestation. American individualism arose in American society in the 18th and 19th centuries, when hundreds of thousands of immigrants arrived in the country. In the process of development, the newcomers counted on themselves, preferred to receive new lands exclusively in the form of private property, and were united in only one thing - the extermination of the indigenous people and the deprivation of their lands. This individualism, emanating from an egoistic feeling, over time, as the power of the country and the wealth of its citizens grew, turned into extreme individualism, which, on the basis of recognizing its own culture as superior in comparison with other cultures, declared the whole world a sphere national interests and requires the rest of humanity to follow American policy.

Western - European individualism is far from the American extreme and has recently been increasingly absorbing elements of collectivism. Individualistic at its core, Western European culture in the process of long evolution has known periods of prosperity and decline of national values and their influence both in their region and in the world as a whole. Almost all the relatively large peoples of Western Europe dominated at one time or another in history. The desire of such temporary centers of influence, as a rule, ran into joint opposition to the cultural (be it political, economic or ideological) expansion of less powerful states, which, thanks to the combined efforts, could protect their cultural specificity. Thus, through trial and error, Western Europe managed to find a compromise between individualism and collectivism, which today is very clearly manifested in the creation of a United Europe.

Of greatest interest to management and other management disciplines is the theory of Klückholn and Strodtbeck, which is based on the identification of characteristics that reflect the relationship between people and their relationship to resources. According to this theory, culture has six main characteristics (or levels): the relationship of a person to the world around him, the relationship of people, the degree of activity, the nature of people, the cultural assessment of time and the concept of space. Let us turn to the consideration of the content of these characteristics and some variants of their manifestation.

1. Man's attitude to the environment. This characteristic of culture shows how people are submissive to the environment, and whether they are able to conquer it.

Americans think they can control environment. They are willing to spend billions of dollars every year on research; believe, for example, that the cause of cancer can be found, a cure can be found, and it can be defeated. This view of the balance of power of a person or his organization is clearly reflected in the philosophy of management and organizational behavior.

To a lesser extent, this attitude to nature is also characteristic of Russians. Let's recall the recent projects for the transfer of Siberian rivers to the south and much more. The reflection of this thesis in the mass consciousness was reflected in the well-known song containing the phrase “And apple trees will bloom on Mars.” In many countries of the Middle and Near East, people believe that life is completely predetermined by Allah.

Between these radically opposite positions there are other points of view. One of them involves harmony with nature. In many Far Eastern countries (including Japan), working with nature involves using it with minimal changes. This position is reflected in the psychology of the Japanese, clearly manifested in their approach to architecture and organizational behavior.

2. Relationships between people. Cultures can be classified according to their degree of responsibility for the welfare of others. Americans, for example, are extreme individualists. They use personal qualities and achievements to satisfy own desires. They believe that a person's responsibility is to take care of himself. The British and French have a different point of view: it is based on hierarchical relationships. Groups in these countries are built according to the principle of steps and hierarchy, and the positions of the group most often remain unchanged over time. Hierarchical societies tend to be aristocratic and snobbish.

It seems that the Russians have always put public interests ahead of personal interests. This is felt, first of all, when analyzing the relationship between the individual and society. The interests of society, or rather, the state, which has always been recognized as its spokesman, have always been a priority. Many experts explain Russian patriotism by this circumstance. People gave the state everything that it demanded and naturally demanded the same from it in case of a crisis. If some characteristic qualities of Russians, such as diligence, have undergone some transformation into Soviet time, then patriotism and the priority of the interests of the state intensified even more during this period. This was facilitated by the policy of the state, which provides some kind of minimum living standard for all its loyal citizens. The same role was played by the main structural unit of Russian society for many centuries - the rural community - demanding the subordination of personal interests to common ones. And this was recognized by people because the community, in turn, was a means of protecting the interests of each of its members in critical situations, was a tool for ensuring the safety of each of its loyal members. Therefore, personal initiative has never been as developed in Russia as in Western countries. And today we feel the lack of this initiative, as well as the natural appeal to the state for Russians.

3. The nature of people. Does the culture view people as good, evil, or a mixture of both? In many African countries, people see themselves as inherently honest and decent, but have a different opinion about outsiders. In general, it can be noted that most cultures demonstrate a different approach to their own and others, which cannot be said about Russian. Thus, the Americans at one time declared the USSR an "evil empire", and today they call Saddam Hussein and Milosevic the center of evil. Americans themselves see people as initially kind, but they believe that one should not lose vigilance.

Denis Alexandrovich Shevchuk

HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT: tutorial

Shevchuk Denis Alexandrovich

Experience in teaching various disciplines in the leading universities of Moscow (economic, legal, technical, humanitarian), two higher educations (economic and legal), more than 30 publications (articles and books), Member of the Union of Moscow Lawyers, Member of the Union of Journalists of Russia, Member of the Union of Journalists of Moscow , Scholarship holder of the Government of the Russian Federation, experience in banks, commercial and government structures (including in senior positions), Deputy General Director of INTERFINANCE (credit broker, group of companies, www.deniskredit.ru and www.kreditbrokeripoteka.ru).

Graduated from the Moscow State University of Geodesy and Cartography (MIIGAiK), Faculty of Economics and Territory Management (FEUT), Manager (organization management) and Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, French University College (Law), PhD in the specialty “Finance, monetary circulation and credit”, a number of specialized courses in various fields of knowledge, constantly improves the educational level in various areas of life, is fond of hatha yoga and various sports.

The manager is a hired manager, the boss! If you do not have a single subordinate, you are not a manager, but a maximum specialist!

Denis Shevchuk

Management is an integral part of organizational structures, therefore, to define management, we will consider it as a field of activity endowed with certain functions, the purpose of which is to achieve the efficiency of acquisition, placement and use of human and material resources. Thus, management as a "teaching" is a structure of knowledge about the use of management, its functions, goals and scope. The purpose of our study is to consider the most significant periods in the evolution of management from the early non-scientific periods to the present day. The study of management, as well as the study of civilizations and cultures, is a study of the history of the continual change of views on the nature of work, man and the functioning of organizations.

The methodology of our study is analytical, synthetic and also interdisciplinary. It is analytical in the study of people, their foundations, ideas and their influences. Its synthetic nature is manifested in the study of trends, directions and external forces that provide a conceptual framework for understanding people and their approaches to solving management problems. It is interdisciplinary in the sense that it goes beyond the traditional interpretations of management, incorporating elements of the history of economics, sociology, psychology, and the history of society in order to determine the place of management in the cultural and historical perspective. We seek to consider management in the context of its cultural environment and, thus, to understand not only what management was like, but also to explain why it developed in such a way.

Cultural environment. To understand the development of management theory and practice, it is necessary to define the cultural framework for their analysis. Management is not a closed activity, since the manager manages his organization and makes decisions under the influence of a certain set of cultural values and institutions. Thus, management has the characteristics of an “open system”, in which the manager influences his environment and, in turn, is influenced by it. Managerial thought does not develop in a cultural vacuum; the work of a manager is always influenced by the existing culture.

Culture is the heritage of non-biological, humanly transmitted characteristics for our entire community and includes the economic, social and political forms of human behavior. There are many approaches to the definition of culture or civilization. In a generalized form, the definition may also look different, but we will give only one of those available in science: “Culture is the totality and results of the transformative activity of man and society, embodied in material and spiritual values.” The definition of culture itself defines the scope of analysis, but does not provide methods for analyzing each particular culture. For this, it is still necessary to identify, if not all of its features, then at least those that are related to the organizational behavior of a person.

In every society there is a problem of limited resources and multiple economic goals. History knows many forms of mobilization of these scarce resources for the production and distribution of products and services. Heilbroner characterized these methods of resource use as traditional, command and market. The traditional method operates on the social principles of the past, when technology is largely static, positions passed from generation to generation, agriculture prevails over industry, and the social and economic systems remain virtually unchanged. The command method is the imposition of the will of some central figure or organization on how resources should be distributed and used. An economic "commander in chief" could be a monarch, a fascist dictator, or a collectivist central planning organization. In this case, decisions about what to produce, what prices and wages should be, how goods and services should be distributed, are made centrally. The market method, which Heilbroner refers to as a relatively new phenomenon, relies on an impersonal network of forces and decisions to allocate resources. Prices, wages and interest rates are negotiated between those who have products and services and those who need them; all resources are thus put to the best use, and there is no need for any central authority to intervene.

5th ed. - M.: Academ. Project: Tricksta, 2005. - 560 p.

The book examines the history of the world science of management from ancient times to the present day. The author highlights the problems of ancient management, managerial revolutions, the concept of Machiavelli's leadership, the classical school of management and, in connection with it, the views of Frederick Taylor, Max Weber, Henri Fayol, as well as the views of representatives of the "human relations" school, including the theory of motivation and (or ) guidance by Elton Mayo, Frederick Herzberg, Douglas McGregor, and others.

Problems of motivating the behavior of entrepreneurs, strategic management, quality management and other concepts of modern management.

The book is addressed to students of economic and sociological specialties, teachers and graduate students, as well as to everyone who is interested in management problems.

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Content(according to ed. 2000)
From author 2
Chapter 1 HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERM "MANAGEMENT" 5
Antique Demagogue 5
Despotism - unlimited power 5
self-serving popularity seeker 5
Educator and Mentor 5
Entrepreneur and Manager 6
Dressage 6
Motivation for voluntary submission 7
Invisible Success Factors 7
Manager - employee 7
Errand boy? 7
Questions for Chapter 8
Chapter 2 MANAGEMENT REVOLUTIONS 8
First management revolution 8
Business Relations and Writing 8
The second managerial revolution 9
The Third Management Revolution 9
The fourth managerial revolution 9
Manager professionalization 10
Manager Specialization 10
Corporate management 10
The Fifth Management Revolution 11
Crowding out the capitalist 11
The birth of the managerial revolution theory 11
Strengthening and dominance of the bureaucracy 12
Managers as a social class 12
Separation of ownership from control 12
Management boom 13
Is a new managerial revolution coming? 13
Managerial revolutions in Russia 14
Questions for chapter 15
Case Study 1: Code of Hammurabi 15
Questions for example 16
Case Study 2: School of Officials in Ancient Egypt 16
Questions for example 17
Chapter 3 ANTIQUITY: THE BIRTH OF CIVILIZED MANAGEMENT 17
Cybernetics - the art of management 17
Oikonomy - farm management 18
Most profitable business 18
More beautiful and rational 19
Civilization of venture firms 19
Philosophers - Entrepreneurs 20
Civilization of the cultural market 20
Participatory management of the ancient Greeks 21
Questions for chapter 21
CHAPTER 4 MACHIAVELLI: THE TECHNOLOGY OF POWER AND DIDERSTNA 21
Herald of European Management 21
Historical face of era 22
Passion for gain and fear of losing 22
Winners are not judged 22
Will to Power 23
Freedom is just the desire not to be oppressed 23
The crowd goes for the appearance of success 24
Fear and love 24
Honest mistakes more often 24
The leader should not be generous 25
Better to keep at bay 25
To be generous is to be dependent 25
Reward Gradually, Punish Immediately 25
Qualities of a lion and qualities of a fox 26
Envy breeds enemies, assertiveness breeds supporters 26
Personality and impersonality 26
Principle of Relativity 27
Relativity and the principle of differentiation 27
Circulation forms of management 27
Decision-making principle 28
The Significance of Machiavelli's Ideas 28
Questions for chapter 28
Chapter 5 Founders of "SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT" 28
Development of theoretical views 29
Socio-economic background 29
Manchester - management center 29
Pleiades of great Englishmen 30
Boltin and Watt experiment 30
R. Owen - pragmatist and utopian 31
Experiment at New Lanark 31
The Fall of Owen the Socialist 31
Causes of rise and fall 31
The meaning of R. Owen's ideas 32
Preparatory phase 33
Followers of the "early managers" 33
Questions for chapter 33
Chapter 6 "SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT" 34
The management center moves to America 34
Old factory system 34
Philadelphia - new center management 35
Society of Mechanical Engineers 36
Biography of F.Taylor 36
Leaders of the "scientific management" movement 36
F. Gilbrett 37
Questions for chapter 38
Specific example. Movement Economy Rules 38
Questions for example 38
Chapter 7 Classical Geometry of Labor 38
Laws and principles scientific organization labor 39
Differential payment system 41
Enrichment or simplification of labor? 42
Timing and distribution of work 43
Questions for chapter 43
Chapter 8 HR MANAGEMENT 44
Reaching Worker Program 44
Sample - school class 45
Create guarantees only for the best 45
The job must be challenging 46
Motivation, evaluation and promotion 46
Achieving Leader Program 47
Functional administration 47
Social monitoring 48
The process of interpersonal communication 48
Leadership style 49
Disciplinary system 49
Questions for chapter 49
Specific example. Implementation of Taylorism in Hungary 50
Questions for example 50
CHAPTER 9 RESTRICTIONISM AND "WORK WITH COOL" 51
"Working Cool" 51
Who benefits from the "middle peasant"? 52
Restorationism at Aivaz 54
Cultural features 56
Research by A. F. Zhuravsky 57
"Working with coolness" today 57
Questions for chapter 58
Chapter 10 MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY 58
Biography of G. Emerson 59
Taylor and Emerson systems 59
World history from the standpoint of management 59
Military Enterprise Lessons 60
Japanese Business Lessons 61
Two types of organization 61
Pyramid of Disorder 61
Tonnage Mania 62
The work is productive and intense 62
View of the management pyramid from below 63
Management from what has been achieved 63
Discipline of Responsibility 64
Significance of G. Emerson's ideas 64
Questions for chapter 64
Chapter 11 SOCIOLOGY OF BUREAUCRACY 64
The problem of national identity 65
The historical mission of rationalization 65
Alienation and participation in management 66
Legal type of domination 67
The essence of bureaucracy 67
Historical types of bureaucracy 67
Achieving objectivity through formalization 68
Employee status 69
Bureaucracy as an ideal type 69
Bureaucracy and socialism 69
Questions for chapter 69
Case Study 1 Egyptian Bureaucracy 70
Questions for example 71
Case Study 2. Vizier Rekhmir's instruction 71
Questions for example 71
Chapter 12 ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY 71
The personality of A. Fayol 72
Management as administration 72
Taylor and Fayol 72
Control function 73
Management principles 74
Questions for chapter 75
Chapter 13 CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT 75
Achievements and significance of the "classics" 75
The structure of the classic Skoda 75
Formal logic Mooney and Reilly 76
Leadership and the Scalar Principle 77
The baton is taken over by the British 78
"Synthetic Approach" by Urwick and Gyulik 78
Methodology classical school 80
Foundations of the classical organization paradigm 80
Questions for chapter 82
Chapter 14 THE ORIGIN OF MANAGEMENT IN RUSSIA AND ITS DEVELOPMENT IN THE USSR 82
Pre-revolutionary period 82
Post-revolutionary period 84
Tectology A.Bogdanov 86
The language of science is the language of the 87 era
"Industrial utopia" O. Yermansky 87
At the intersection of different methodologies 88
The concept of NOT A.F. Zhuravsky 89
Questions for chapter 89
Chapter 15 CULTURE OF WORK AND MANAGEMENT A. GASTEV 89
Life activity of A. Gastev 90
The concept of cultural attitudes 90
Job training 91
Work culture 91
Questions for chapter 92
Specific example. Memo-rules 92
Questions for example 93
Chapter 16 DEVELOPMENTS OF THE KHARKIV SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT AND PSYCHOTECHNICS 93
"Theory of orders" 94
Questions of discipline 94
Concrete example. F. Dunaevsky's situational approach 95
Development of psychotechnics 95
Psychotechnics at the enterprise 96
Prerequisites for institutionalization 97
Questions for chapter and example 97
Chapter 17 SOCIAL ENGINEERING AND THE PRACTICE OF NON-INNOVATION 97
Practice A. Gastev 97
Constructivism N. Witke 99
Methodology F. Dunaevsky 101
Implementation Practice: System Comparison 103
Questions for chapter 105
Chapter 18 THE HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENTS 105
The Hawthorne Experiments: First Stage 106
The Hawthorne Experiments: Second Stage 106
The Hawthorne Experiments: Third Stage 107
The Hawthorne Effect 108
Revision of the Hawthorne Discovery 108
Questions for chapter 110
Specific example. Experiment at the Volvo enterprise 110
Questions for example 111
Chapter 19 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS 112
The birth of new approaches 112
The structure of the theory of needs D. Maslow 112
Dynamics of needs 113
Needs in the workplace 114
CHAPTER 20 HERZBERG'S THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT BY M. MACGREGOR 115
Two-factor theory by F. Herzberg 115
Application of Herzberg's creations 117
D. McGregor's Theory of Leadership Styles 118
Diagnostics and implementation 119
Relationship of theories 120
Specific example. McGregor D. The human aspect of the enterprise 120
Questions for chapter and example 122
Chapter 21 MOTIVATION OF MANAGERS AND ENTREPRENEURS 122
Instinctive theory of motivation by W. James 122
Theory of expectations and values 123
D.McClelland's Achievement Motivation 123
"Formula of Success" by J.Atkinson 124
Motivation and probability of success 124
Attribute theory of motivation 125
Scale "internality - externality" 125
Power and leadership 125
Risk appetite 126
Cognitive theory and heuristics of thinking 127
The social context of entrepreneurship 127
Questions for chapter 128
Chapter 22 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 128
What's happened social organization 129
Organizational Behavior Variables 129
Types of power in an organization 130
Value barrier 130
Tannenbaum and Schmidt scale 130
Model J.Homans 131
Theory of immaturity by K.Argyris 131
R. Likert's Theory of Styles 131
Stimulating and Preventive Styles 132
Blake and Mouton Model 132
The concept of fear and love A.Etzioni 133
Model of a successful manager B. Bass 133
Model of effective organization R. Likert 134
Style selection 135
Strategy organizational change 136
Questions for chapter 136
Chapter 23 Modern management 137
Strategic planning 137
Marketing 138
Quality management 138
Logistics 139
Project management and cost management 140
New areas of management 140
Personnel management and requirements for a manager 141
Questions for chapter 141
TASKS AND EXERCISES 141
Exercises 141
Tasks 144
Answers to exercises 144
Answers to tasks. 145
LITERATURE 145
Content 148

I. V. RAZUMOV,

KUDRYAVTSEVA T. Yu.

History of Management: Formation, Development, Prospects Textbook

Yaroslavl

LBC 65.9

UDC 336.012.24

Reviewer: Platov O. K., doctor economic sciences, Professor

Yaroslavl State University named after P. G. Demidova

Razumov I. V., Kudryavtseva T. Yu. History of Management: Formation, Development, Prospects: Textbook. Yaroslavl: Publishing house of YarSU, 2008. - 136 p.

The textbook examines the evolution of the concept of "management" in the context of managerial revolutions in a concise and accessible form. The features of the formation of management as a science, which are reflected in the development of schools, are revealed. scientific management and in the practice of establishing national management models. The problems of management at the present stage and the prospects for its development in the future are analyzed.

The textbook is intended for use in the educational process when studying the course "History of Management". For students and teachers of economic specialties.

FOREWORD………………………………………………………..........5

CHAPTERI. Evolution of managerial thought of the period

antiquity and middle ages……………………………………………..9

§ 1.1. Management traditions of the Ancient East ………………………….9

§ 1.2. Economic and legal foundations of management ideas and practices of Ancient Greece and Rome………………………………………………………………..13

§ 1.3. Management views of the Middle Ages. The role of N. Machiavelli in the formation of knowledge about management……………………………………………….15

..19

....19

CHAPTERII. Formation and development of management science…………….....21

§ 2.1. Accumulation of knowledge about management during industrial production…………………………………………………………………………..21

§ 2.2.“Principles of scientific management” by F. Taylor and the development of management theory………………………………………………………………………………..29

§ 2.3. Principles of effective management by G. Emerson and M. Cook……..35

Questions for discussion at the seminar…………………………………………...38

.39

CHAPTERIII. Classical (Administrative) School of Management… .40

§ 3.1. The administrative theory of A. Fayol…………………………………..40

§ 3.2. The theory of bureaucracy by M. Weber and the sociology of management………...45

§ 3.3.Management concepts by W. Newman, J. Mooney and A. K. Reilly. Systematization of the provisions of the classical school……………………………….49

Questions for discussion at the seminar…………………………………………...54

Bibliography………………………………………………………………….54

CHAPTERIV. The human factor in management theory……………… ..56

§ 4.1. School of Human Relations and The Hawthorne Experiments

E. Mayo in the development of management theory……………………………………..56

§ 4.2. Philosophy of Management M. P. Follet…………………………………….60

§ 4.3.The influence of the school of behavioral sciences on management theory………… 65

Questions for discussion at the seminar…………………………………………...74

Bibliography………………………………………………………………….75

CHAPTERV. Quantitative School of Management………………………… ....76

§ 5.1. Quantitative methods and "operations research"

in management……………………………………………………………………………… 76

§ 5.2.The situational approach and its contribution to development

management theory……………………………………………………………………… 79

§ 5.3. Formation of a systematic approach to management……………………. 83

Questions for discussion at the seminar………………………………………….. 87

Bibliography………………………………………………………………….87

CHAPTERVI. National features and management models……… 89

§ 6.1. Formation and development of American and Western European models of management………………………………………………………………… 89

§ 6.2. Formation of the Japanese management model……………………….....103

§ 6.3.The formation of a market management model

in Russia: national features and traditions………………………… 108

§ 6.4. Problems and prospects for the development of management in

present stage……………………………………………………………..114

Questions for discussion at the seminar………………………………………… 129

Bibliography………………………………………………………………..130

CONCLUSION.............................................................................................131

BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................................133

Foreword

The study of management, like the study of civilizations and cultures, is a study of the evolution of views on the nature of management.

The subject of the "History of Management" is the socio-historical process of the emergence, development and change of the system of knowledge, views, ideas and judgments about management.

English word « management» in translation means "management". In the classical view, the word "management" is broader than the concept of "management". However, in Russian literature "management" And"control" defined as synonyms. At the same time, it should be noted that the semantics of the word "management" is very complex and the true scope and content of this concept can only be seen by tracing the evolution of views on management.

So in the period of ancient civilizations there was no analogue to the concept of "management". At the heart of the views on management were the established customs and traditions, which were enshrined in legislative acts and ancient written sources.

In the era of the Middle Ages, views on management took shape, due to the development of the guild organization of handicraft production.

The Industrial Revolution led to a rethinking of the views on management, which began to be considered in the context of the technological support of enterprises, the introduction of machines on them and the concentration of human resources within the framework of industrial production.

In the XX century. the systematization of the accumulated knowledge about management is carried out, and the first definition of the content of the concept of "management" appears - "ensuring the performance of work with the help of other persons" 1 . In addition, in 1910 the concept of "scientific management" was introduced.

At the present stage, the concept of "management" is interpreted as:

the ability to achieve goals, using labor, intellect, motives for the behavior of other people 2;

management activities included as a component in the activities of the organization as a whole 3 ;

way, manner of dealing with people, special skills and administrative skills, governing body 4;

a set of principles, methods, means and forms of production management in order to increase its efficiency and profitability 5 ;

The first management revolution chronologically covering the period of the Ancient World, is associated with the need to centralize the economic activities of the ancient states, due to large-scale construction and land reclamation work. It was during this period that the birth of the first ideas about management took place, which, from the standpoint of modernity, can be considered as the design of such a management function as organization. The first managerial revolution is characterized by the emergence of a formal system of organization and regulation of people's relations.

Second managerial revolution belongs to the medieval period. The evolution of views on management in the period under review was facilitated by the development of workshop production, which had a significant impact on the formation and development of such a management function as control. The implementation of this function in the Middle Ages was reflected in the views on the regulation of production activities, through coordination and control workshop structure production (control over the volume of products, coordination of the activities of apprentices, etc.)

The third managerial revolution coincided with the industrial (XVIII - XIX centuries), the latter was due to the development of factory production and its mechanization. The factory system of production has given rise to new problems related to the compliance of workers with strict production requirements, determined by the desire of entrepreneurs to maximize the level of productivity in order to justify their capital investments. As a result, there was a need in tough accounting all stages of industrial production, from raw materials to technical equipment and the level of professional training of workers.

The fourth managerial revolution , the chronological framework of which, in our opinion, falls on the end of the 19th - 80s of the 20th century. was called the merger of financial and industrial capital, which led to the formation and development of the largest corporations. The complication of economic practice required the systematization of accumulated knowledge about management and led to the emergence of a fundamentally new management function - planning, reflected in the search for profitable capital investments. In addition, it was during this period that the theory of administration appeared, which made the role of managers in the corporation the central link of its research.

Fifth managerial revolution , which dates back to the end of the 20th century. is connected, first of all, with the development of information systems, which, through the use of the latest economic and mathematical methods in management, led to the emergence of such a management function as forecasting.

Considering the development of the theory and practice of management, it should be noted that there are no universal techniques or firm principles that would make management effective. However, over the centuries, approaches have been developed that help leaders increase the likelihood of effective achievement of the organization's goals. Each of the approaches outlined below has made a significant contribution to understanding the goals, objectives and principles of modern management.

To date, four major approaches are known that have made a significant contribution to the development of management theory and practice: approach from the standpoint of identifying different schools in management ( scientific management school, classical school, behavioral school, quantitative management school) ; process approach; systems approach; from iteration approach.

Thus, the evolution of the concept of "management" is directly related to the peculiarities of the formation of management as a science, the development of schools of scientific management and the practice of establishing national management models.

Formation of the school of scientific management

F.Taylor marked the beginning of an era that can be characterized as the search for abilities and the systematization of knowledge about management. The last decades of the 19th century are characterized by an exceptional accumulation of resources in American industry. Wide use electrical energy in factories and the mechanization of manual labor has led to potentially high productivity and mass production of machinery. The accumulation of resources and advances in technology brought to light the main obstacle to higher productivity, which was immature forms of management. And nowhere was this more evident than in the enterprise itself. Labor was highly specialized and required support and coordination, integration and systematization of work. And it is not at all accidental that the first attempts to systematize management came from engineers. Engineers created equipment, facilitated its implementation, helped with advice on its use and provided great help in solving problems. managerial problems. Therefore, the early writers in the field of management emphasized the technology and methods of managing the efficiency of production within the shop floor, which was at that time the main problem of production. One of these engineers stands out for his special position in the systematization of management. He is recognized as the "father of scientific management".

Frederick Winslow Taylor(1856 - 1915) was born in Pennsylvania in the family of a fairly prosperous lawyer. Even as a young man, he was “fascinated by scientific research, research and experimentation… endowed with a passion for improving and correcting things on the basis of facts, and early in his years was annoyed at some lack of a “better way”. He carefully studied, analyzed the game of cricket as the best method of suppressing the terrain. Harvard. Taylor's zeal and extraordinary energy, which led to classes until late at night, took their toll on his health. After successfully passing the exams at Harvard, due to declining health, he began his labor activity as a modeler of a worker at a metallurgical enterprise. There, Taylor went from worker to chief engineer in 6 years. Realizing the need for technical education, he entered the correspondence department of the Institute of Technology and received a degree in mechanical engineering in 1883.

Taylor had no management experience and relied solely on his own research. His frontal attack production problems led to early conflicts with workers. As soon as he gained prestige among the workers, he immediately set about correcting the situation. He could not look indifferently at the fact that the worker did less than he could. For him, this was unnatural and, perhaps, it seemed a great sin.

The cutback in Midvale was classified by Taylor as "natural shirk" and "systematic shirk." The natural shirking was the result of the "instinct and tendency of the individual not to overdo it," while the systematic form was the result of "their evaluation of relationships with other people. A manager can simply overcome shirking if he inspires or forces a person to fulfill the norm. Systematic shirking leads to various problems, and managers have struggled for years to deal with the tendency to meet group performance standards.

The piecework system, introduced long before Taylor, encouraged incentives and initiative by paying for output. Such systems failed completely before Taylor, as standards were poorly set and employers cut wages for workers as soon as they began to earn more. For the sake of protecting their interests, the workers hid new, more progressive methods and methods of work and improvement. Bearing in mind the past experience of cutting wages above a certain level, the workers came to an agreement regarding productivity and earnings. Taylor did not blame these people and even sympathized with them, as he felt that these were the errors of the system.

The first attempts to change the system ran into opposition from the workers. He tried to convince them that they could do more. Taylor began by explaining to the turners how they could get more output for less with his new working methods. But he failed because they refused to follow his instructions. He decided on larger changes in labor standards and wages: now they had to work better for the same price. People responded with damage and stopping cars. To which Taylor responded with a system of fines (revenue from fines went to the benefit of the workers). Taylor did not win the battle with the machinists, but he learned a useful lesson from the struggle. He would never use the penalty system again and would later create strict rules against pay cuts. Taylor concluded that in order to prevent such unpleasant skirmishes between workers and managers, a new industrial scheme should have been created.

He believed that he could overcome the shirking by carefully researching the work in order to establish accurate production rates. The problem was to find complete and fair norms for each task. Taylor decided to establish scientifically what people should do with equipment and materials. To do this, he began to use the methods of scientific data mining by empirical research. Taylor probably did not think about creating some kind of general theory applicable to other professions and industries, he simply proceeded from the need to overcome the hostility and antagonism of workers.

The study of the time of operations became the basis of the entire Taylor system. It formulated the basis of the scientific approach to work and had two phases: “analytical” and “constructive”. During the analysis, each job was divided into a set of elementary operations, some of which were discarded. Then the time spent on each elementary movement performed by the most skillful and qualified performer was measured and recorded. A percentage was added to this recorded time to cover inevitable delays and breaks, and other percentages were added to reflect the "newness" of the work to the individual and necessary rest breaks. Most of the critics saw the unscientific nature of Taylor's method precisely in these allowances. they were determined on the basis of the researcher's experience and intuition. The constructive phase included the creation of a card file of elementary operations and the time spent on the performance of individual operations or their groups. Moreover, this phase led to the search for improvements in instruments, machines, materials, methods and the ultimate standardization of all elements surrounding and accompanying the work.

In his article "The system of differentiated pay" Frederick Taylor first stated about new system. Taylor's system included three parts: the study and analysis of the time of operations to establish norms or standards, "differential pay" piece work, "pay the person, not the position." According to Taylor, profit sharing failed because: (1) everyone's profit sharing did not pay attention to the contribution of the individual, discouraged work; (2) "reward distance". The second point of Taylor's critique regarding was a consequence of his insight into the psychological principle of temporal association, i.e. accounting for reward time with rewarded behavior. Taylor understood that rewards received at the end of the year are not an incentive for peak performance on that particular day.

This article identified Taylor's views on labor unions, which brought much criticism to Taylor: “The writer is far from the view of many manufacturers that labor unions are harmful to their members, to employers and to society as a whole. Labor unions… did a lot not only for their members, but for the whole of society by shortening the working day, alleviating hardships and improving the working conditions of workers… When employers divided their workers into classes and paid everyone within the same class the same salary… the only way to protect people was to unite them ... This state of affairs cannot be considered satisfactory and the author believes that the system of regulating the wages and conditions of employment of entire classes of people through meetings and agreements between leaders, unions and manufacturers is far from the best ... It should give way to a plan to stimulate the ambitions of each worker by paying his individual productivity , without limiting it to average norms or average salary class."

Taylor did not see unions in his management system. For Taylor, membership in a union deprived a person of the opportunity to realize their abilities and desires. People should be encouraged to strive to become better and earn more.

This early report on incentives and proper relations between workers and management anticipated his philosophy of mutual interest between these parties. Taylor proceeded from the recognition that by opposing workers to receive more wages, the employer himself received less. He saw mutual interest in cooperation rather than conflict between workers and management. He criticized the employers' practice of hiring cheap labor and paying the lowest possible wages, as well as workers' demands for maximum pay. Taylor advocated high wages for first-class workers, encouraging them to work to produce more of the standard through efficient conditions and with less effort. The result was high labor productivity, which translated into lower unit costs for the employer and higher wages for the worker. Summarizing his wage system, Taylor outlined the goals that should be pursued by every enterprise:

(a) Each worker should be given the most difficult job for him;

(b) Every workman should be called upon to do the maximum amount of work that a first-class workman is capable of;

(c) Every worker, when he is working at a speed of first class, is reported to receive a bonus of 30% to 100% for the work he does above the average.”

The notion of a "first-class worker" formed the basis for the scientific selection of workers and brought much grief to Taylor when he tried to explain it to others. In a written testimony before a congressional special committee, Taylor defined a first-class worker as follows: “I believe that the only person who does not qualify as a first-rate worker is one who can, but will not work. I tried to explain that you can find a job for every person in which he would be first-class, with the exception of those who are able to do the job, but do not do it. Based on this, a “sub-class worker” is only one who is physically and/or mentally unsuitable for a certain job (in which case he should be retrained or transferred to another job more suitable for him), or someone who is not disposed to work well. In setting the standards for each job, Taylor proceeded from the pace that a first-class worker “could maintain for years without harm to health. This is the pace at which a person becomes happier and more prosperous.” The pace of the first-class worker was distinguished by the absence of jerks and tensions, but by the normal pace that a person could endure. In essence, with this provision, Taylor created the foundations of personnel management, that is, the correspondence of human capabilities to the work performed.

The task of management was to find the job for which the given worker was best suited, to help him become a first-class worker, and to provide him with incentives for top performance. He came to the conclusion that the main difference between people was not their intellect, but their will, the desire to achieve. First-class workers are people who are relevant to their work and ambitious.

Taylor also created a job management system. Today, after Drucker created management by objectives, this innovation of Taylor could be called management by tasks. Taylor defined management as "knowing exactly what you want from a person and seeing how he does it in the best and cheapest way." He added that a short definition could not fully capture the art of management, but emphasized that "the relationship between employers and workers is undoubtedly the most important part of this art." Management, in his opinion, should create such a system of work that would ensure high productivity, and stimulating the employee would lead to even greater productivity.

Realizing that his system of work depended on careful planning, he founded the concept of "task management", which later became known as "scientific management". Task management consisted of 2 parts: (1) every day the worker received a specific task with detailed instructions and precise timing for each stage of work and (2) the worker who completed the task at a certain time received a higher salary, while those those who spent more time received the usual earnings. The task was based on a detailed study of time, methods, instruments and materials. Once defined and assigned to first-class (exemplary) workers, these tasks in the future did not require the time and energy of a manager who could focus on the organization common system work. The immediate problem of the organization was the direction of management efforts in planning work and guiding its completion (for more details, see the websites http://www.kreditbrokeripoteka.ru and http://www.deniskredit.ru).

To cope with the increasing complexity of management, Taylor created a unique form of leadership, which he called the "functional leader." Taylor identified 9 signs that determine a good leader lower level - masters: intelligence, education, special or technical knowledge, managerial dexterity or strength, tact, vigor, endurance, honesty, own opinion and common sense, good health.

Taylor believed that finding a person with 3 of these traits was not very difficult, with 5-6 it was more difficult, and with 7 or 8 it was almost impossible. This led him to abandon the military organization system with a single boss and develop the concept functional boss. He believed that fulfilling the duties of a master did not require all these traits. The specialization of the work of junior managers made it possible to reduce the number of physical and mental requirements for them. In the beginning, Taylor hired assistants to prepare briefing cards and complete other detailed assignments for junior leaders. As the system evolved, he placed more and more responsibility on them by further separating and delegating functions. The result of this was the creation of a new organizational technique of functionalism, which replaced the former hierarchical military organization.

According to Denis Shevchuk, Deputy General Director, Vice President of INTERFINANCE Credit Broker (MORTAGE * BUSINESS LENDING * Feasibility Study, BUSINESS PLANS, www.kreditbrokeripoteka.ru), a typical manager of those days did not know how and did not plan. His a new style management began with the separation of work planning from its execution, which was a notable achievement of his time. Taylor divided responsibilities into two main areas: performance responsibilities and planning responsibilities. In the performing area, the master supervised all the preparatory work before feeding the material into the machine. The “master-speed worker” began his work from the moment when the materials were loaded and was responsible for setting up the machine and tools. The inspector was responsible for the quality of the work, and the maintenance mechanic was responsible for the repair and maintenance of the equipment. In the field of planning, the technologist determined the sequence of operations and the transfer of the product from one performer or machine to the next performer or machine. Normalizer (clerk for technological map) compiled written information about tools, materials, production standards and other technological documents. The labor and cost rater sent out cards to record the time spent on the operation and the cost of losses, and ensured the return of these cards. The personnel clerk, who monitors discipline, kept records of the merits and demerits of each employee, served as a “peacemaker”, because settled industrial conflicts and was engaged in hiring and firing employees.

Taylor did not see contradictions in his system with the principle of unity of command, characteristic of the military system. He believed that the rule of unity of command was respected, since each of them led a separate area of activity. With his idea and main goal of management in creating harmony and common interests of workers and employers, Taylor believed that the spirit of cooperation would prevent possible conflicts in a functional management system. Under the new system, the training of masters became easier, since everyone needed to know only certain duties, limited to a narrow field of activity.

However, it should be noted that nowhere, except for Taylor himself, did the system of functional managers work. Some authors believe that the functional concept of the activity of masters has not become widespread due to the lack of comprehensively trained managers who knew how to use narrowly functional masters, and not because of the complication of the principle of one boss for the worker. Essentially, functionalization was an attempt to decentralize management to change the responsibilities of the general manager.

From the very beginning, Taylor's innovative methods ran into resistance from various groups of people: management workers, representatives of the local community and trade unions. Thus, by scientifically determining the best way to load iron ingots onto the platform, Taylor achieved a 362% increase in labor productivity while increasing the wages of workers by 61%. The results of this innovation were as follows. Home and shop owners protested as new practice could lead to a reduction in the workforce and a drop in their income. Those workers who protested against the cuts were sent by Taylor to other jobs at the company, where they were better suited and began to earn more. The press accused T. of raising workers' wages by 61% while increasing labor productivity by 362%.

He responded to these accusations in accordance with his management philosophy: from the application of his methods, society benefited from increased productivity, higher profits for owners and cheaper goods for consumers, as well as higher incomes for workers.

Managers were most dissatisfied with the introduction of accounting for the cost of all expenses - for individual operations, orders, etc. In fact, it was a quantitative assessment of the work of each manager. The cost approach has become a daily practice in planning and control. The system was so effective that management tried to get rid of it.

The rejection of scientific management methods prompted Taylor to leave the industry. Since 1901, he begins to present his system in lectures and written works. Three years later, he becomes President of the very prestigious American Society of Mechanical Engineers in the United States. He traveled extensively for his lectures. The main place of teaching was Harvard, where his winter cycles were held from 1909 to 1914. Not being too elegant or concise in writing and lectures, he was an exceptionally interesting lecturer, as he illustrated the theoretical positions with examples and the language of his interlocutors-workers, anecdotes and slang of the common people.

Taylor's advocacy and the struggle of trade unions against Taylorism pushed the founder of scientific management to search for arguments and comprehension, generalization of what had been done, which resulted in the formulation of a peculiar philosophy of management. Let's try to consider its main provisions.

In the first decade of the twentieth century, concern was expressed by President Theodore Roosevelt and others about the depletion of America's resources. Taylor, who fought for almost three decades against the misuse of both physical and human resources, turned out to be on time. Taylor in his "Principles of Scientific Management" noted that his goals were:

"Firstly. Point out, using a number of simple examples, that the country suffers large losses due to the inefficiency of almost all daily actions.

Secondly. To try to convince the reader that the cure for this inefficiency is more systematic management than the search for some unusual or extraordinary person.

Thirdly. To prove that the best management is a true science based on well-defined laws, rules and principles. Show further that the fundamental principles of scientific management apply to all types of human activity, from our simplest individual actions to the work of our large corporations that call for the most complex collaborations.”

Taylor also noted that "the principal goal of management should be to ensure the maximum prosperity of the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity of each employee." In the relationship of these two components, he saw a long-term opportunity to satisfy the interests of both parties. To do this, you need to apply his methods effective management the lowest link in the entire management system up to the national level.

His philosophy of mutual interest was based on 4 principles: the development of science, scientific selection of workers, scientific training and development of workers, close friendly cooperation between management and workers. He especially emphasized the need to use all the principles in a complex, not allowing the most important to be singled out among them: “Not one element, but only a combination of them, constitutes scientific management.

Taylor paid much attention to the problem of human resources. Responding to accusations that his system was impersonal and cold to man, Taylor wrote: “No system can fail to take into account the needs of a real person. Needed as good system and a good worker. Maintaining a good management system will produce results in direct proportion to the ability, consistency, and respect for the authority of the managers. He also emphasized the need to form proper human relations between employers and wage labor, taking into account the prejudices of workers. He did not ignore such an important issue as resistance to change, which is the result of workers' assessment of change as an attack on their interests. And therefore, he believed, workers are not interested in the goals of change, they simply resist it. For example, the implementation of his system required a long period of 5 years.

Frederick Taylor and his associates represent the first wave of synthesis in scientific management. Scientific management is characterized as the process of connecting the physical resources or technical elements of an organization with human resources in order to achieve the goals of the organization. On the technological side, Taylor's scientific approach was aimed at analyzing existing practices in order to standardize and rationalize the use of resources. From the side of human resources, he sought the highest degree of individual development and reward by reducing fatigue, scientific selection, matching the abilities of the worker to the work performed by him, and also by stimulating the worker. He did not ignore the human element, as is often noted, but emphasized the individual, and not the social, group side of man.

Taylor was the center of the scientific management movement, but the people around him and those who knew him also contributed to the establishment and spread of scientific management.

Of all the followers at the forefront of the scientific management movement Karl Barth(1860-1939) was the most orthodox. After Taylor's departure from practical management, Barth was involved in the modernization of the automotive industry. He then took up lecturing on scientific management at Harvard (1911-1922). He opposed any changes to Taylor's prescriptions. His contribution to managerial thought was limited to his dedicated execution of Taylor's prescriptions.

Henry Gantt quickly grasped and understood the essence of Taylor's work and, despite occasional disagreements, became Taylor's chief student. Beginning in 1901, he worked as a consultant and developed the theory. He had more than 150 publications, including three books, patented more than a dozen inventions, lectured at universities, remaining one of the most successful consultants for management.

Ideas of mutual interest between workforce and management, scientific selection of workers, detailed work instructions, among others, and Taylor's conceptual approach are widely reflected in Gantt's work. He invented "work on assignments with bonuses," a system that gave a worker a bonus of 50 cents a day if he did all his assigned work on any given day. Further, to motivate the master, he was assigned a bonus for each worker who fulfilled the norm and more additional premium if all his subordinates achieved the same result. In fact, in this case, we have the first attempt known to us to interest the financial master in teaching workers the correct methods of work. Gantt's innovation was to motivate managers more directly through direct financial interest. From his own teaching experience, Gantt understood the importance of learning and felt that the bonus system was to change the role of a master "driver" into a teacher and assistant to his subordinates. In this transition from concern for production to concern for the worker through instruction and subsequently improvement in production, Gantt's work is an early milestone in human behavioral thought. In training the worker, Gantt believed, the foreman must do more than improve the skill and knowledge of the worker. He believed that a hundred masters are obliged to conduct industrial education, called "habits of industry." These habits should be the following: diligence and cooperation, which will facilitate the acquisition of the rest of the knowledge.

As a former teacher, Gantt focused on communicating data through graphical means. One of his early objects of graphical display was "setting the habits of industry" through horizontal bars showing the progress of workers towards the norm. The schedule served as a control aid for both the management and the worker. Everyone can see progress in the work of a shop or department as a diagram containing increasingly solid black lines. Since this charting method helped in increasing productivity, Gantt extended his visual aids to the daily balance of production, control over the level of costs, the amount of work on each machine and the amount of work per person compared to initial estimates, and the like. However, his main breakthrough in creating graphics was when he served as a consultant in the Army Department during World War I. The first chart created by Gant depicted five items of military material and the planning of required orders, the fulfillment of orders, and the presence of stock in the warehouse. In management thought of the period, Gantt's graphic aids were revolutionary for management planning and management itself. On the finished graphic form, the management could see how the plans were being carried out and take the necessary actions to control their implementation on time and their budget. All subsequent boards and production control charts were borrowed from Gantt.

The married couple made a great contribution to the development and popularization of scientific management Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. F. Gilbreth's early activities were similar to those of Taylor. He later organized his own consulting company and joined the scientific management movement. At the beginning of his activity, he developed a construction management system that consisted of three parts. 1. The system of classes was a system accounting, which was developed to help the contractor in calculating the various costs per week of work. 2. The specific System contained detailed advice to specific contractors. Gilbert wrote about the control of workers, including the need for "sporting competitions" between groups of workers in order to complete work as quickly as possible. All the work was divided into groups of workers who competed to complete a particular task faster. 3. The Mason's system was technical. He proposed a system better way bricklaying, created on the basis of the study of movements. He not only taught the workers how to handle the bricks, but also explained why this was the best way. He emphasized the economy of effort, not the speed of their implementation. Like Taylor, he was looking to increase productivity without much physical effort. The result of his search was to increase the worker's daily brick-laying quota from 1,000 to 2,700 bricks without much effort.

In 1907, Gilbert met Frederick Taylor. After Gilbert began to collaborate with Taylor and began to improve his own system, he began to develop more and more sophisticated methods for measuring running time. He compiled a list of 17 basic movements, which allowed for a more accurate analysis of the elementary movements of workers. He first began using the movie camera in industrial research. He also developed a "cyclegraphic" technique for attaching a small electric light bulb to a worker's arm, finger, or hand to record movements on film.

A large study of the causes of worker fatigue, conducted by F. Gilbreth together with his wife Lillian, showed that the cause of fatigue was not monotony, but a lack of management interest in the worker. Lillian Gilbreth played an important role in her husband's work and built a reputation for her own work. In her doctoral dissertation, published as a separate book before her defense, she applied the methods and insights of psychology to workplace research.

She defined the psychology of management "as the influence of the mind organizing work on organized work, and the influence of unorganized and organized activity on the thinking of the worker." She believed that successful management “is based on the person, not on the job” and scientific management is a means to maximize the use of human capabilities and efforts. L. Gilbreth characterized three historical management styles: traditional, transitional and scientific. She noted that psychologists until that time had largely concentrated on the study of crowd psychology and relatively little work had been done on personality psychology. Under scientific management, the worker gained "mental balance and security" rather than the restlessness that was inevitable under traditional management. Concerned about well-being, scientific management supported regular work, encouraging a good relationship in the team, and contributed to the physical, mental, moral, and financial development of the worker. L. Gilbreth was a pioneer in management psychology.

In 1911, a group of specialists led by F. Gilbreth created a separate organization called the Society for the Support of Scientific Management and renamed the Taylor Society after Taylor's death. He created "Introduction to Scientific Management", in which he outlined general issues scientific management and offered answers in clear and intelligible terminology regarding the basic principles and practices of scientific management. And although the work did not contain fundamentally new information, the brilliant formulation of questions and the formulation of answers provided the book with wide attention among readers.

Harrington Emerson(1853-1931) was the son of a Presbyterian minister who believed in Protestant ideas of economic use of resources. Waste and inefficiency were the evils that, according to Emerson, permeated the entire American industrial system. According to Emerson, one of the biggest problems was the lack of organization. The solution of these problems was to be promoted by the “Twelve Principles of Effectiveness” defined by him, which became a new benchmark in the history of management development. A chapter was dedicated to each of the twelve principles; the first five chapters dealt with relationships between people, and the remaining chapters dealt with methods, institutions, and systems. The "principles" were not isolated, but interdependent and coordinated to provide a structure for shaping the management system. Interestingly, considering the principles separately, the author in each chapter emphasizes their relationship through the interpretation of the main ones.

In the preface, Emerson emphasized the basic premise: “It was not labor, capital, or land that created and is creating modern wealth today. Ideas are what create wealth. And all that is required today is ideas that make wider use of natural conditions, as well as the reduction of labor, capital and land per unit of production. Ideas were the dominant force and they had to be focused on eliminating waste and creating a more efficient industrial system. The principles were the means to that end, and the basis of all principles was the linear form of organization. Emerson felt that "the chief disease of industry is defective organization."

The principles of management formulated by Emerson are as follows:

1. Precisely set ideals or goals.

2. Common sense

3. Competent advice.

4. Discipline

5. Fair treatment of staff

6. Fast, reliable, complete, accurate and constant accounting

7. Dispatch

8. Norms and schedules

9. Normalization of conditions

10. Rationing operations

11. Written standard instructions

12. Performance reward

In the mentioned work, G. Emerson first raised the question of production efficiency in a broad sense. Efficiency means the best possible balance between total costs and economic benefits. “True performance always gives maximum results with minimum effort, tension, on the contrary, gives great results only with abnormal efforts. Voltage and performance are not only the same thing, but also opposite things. To work hard means to put maximum effort into the work. To work productively means to apply the minimum effort to the work. ”

Emermon rejected Taylor's idea of a functional master. He agreed with Taylor on the need for specialized personnel knowledge, but disagreed on how to do it. Influenced by European education, Emerson admired the organizational efforts of General von Moltke, who developed the general concept of personnel and made the Prussian army an extremely efficient machine in the middle of the nineteenth century. Theory general concept personnel was that each subject related to military operations was carefully studied by individual specialists and that the combined wisdom of these specialists influenced the high command, playing the role of advisers.

The line organization, not receiving assistance from the personnel department, had serious shortcomings. Emerson believed that it was possible to apply these staff principles to industrial practice to bring about "a complete parallelism between line management and human resources, so that every line element can at any time benefit from the knowledge and assistance of human resources." Every firm must have a "head of personnel" and four large personnel departments under his subordination:

– one for “staff” to “plan, manage and advise” on the full range of issues pertaining to the welfare of employees;

– the second, to advise on “structure, machinery, appliances, and other equipment”;

– the third for “materials”, including their acquisition, preservation, release, and processing;

– a fourth for “methods and conditions” to include standards, records, and accounting.

HR advice should be available to all organizational levels and focus on planning: "HR's business is not to get the job done, but to set standards and ideals so that the 'line' can work more efficiently." The difference between Emerson and Taylor is thus obvious. Instead of making one person responsible for each specific function of the shop floor, Emerson leaves the control and authority of a "line" that functions based on planning and advice. personnel service. This proposal retained the benefits of specialized knowledge without the disadvantages of breaking the chain of command.

While the reviewed authors studied efficiency in industrial enterprises, Morris Cook(1872-1960) expanded the doctrine of efficiency for educational and municipal organizations. In 1909, the president of the Carnegie Society for the Advancement of Learning approached Taylor for help with an "economic study" of the administration in educational organizations. Taylor assigned Cook the task. The results of his research were like a bombshell in the academic world. Cook noted that - management practices and the state of management in the educational field were even worse than in industry. Committee management was a curse, and departments enjoyed excessive autonomy that was a barrier to healthy university coordination. Remuneration at the university was carried out not on the basis of the quality of work, but on the basis of the length of service.

He also recommended that the lifetime hiring of professors be reconsidered and that unqualified teachers be fired. Cook proposed introducing the standard unit "student-hour" (one hour in a class or laboratory per student) as a standard unit for recording the effectiveness of professional efforts. The professors had to spend large quantity time for training and research, leaving management to specialists, not committees. It was proposed to use assistants more widely, to allow the most capable of them to perform complex work. Salary increases were to be based on quality or efficiency, and spending on teaching and research was to be more closely controlled by the central administration.

In 1911, Cooke became head of Public Works at City Hall and brought scientific management to the administration of Philadelphia. In four years, he saved the city more than one million dollars, cut costs by a million and a quarter, laid off 1,000 underperforming workers, established a pension and profit fund, created communication channels between workers and managers, and brought municipal government from smoke-filled rooms into the light of day. His book Our Cities Awakening focused on better governance of municipalities through the principles of scientific management.

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Question 49 What schools of management are there in the world? Answer There are different approaches to classification. scientific schools in management. But most authors clearly distinguish three schools. School of Scientific Management. Its representatives are F. Taylor, spouses Gilbreth, G.

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Science editor's preface Understand and change yourself! Almost every person involved in management in one way or another has to decide how to increase the efficiency of their work. For more than a century, theorists have been trying to find a solution to this question.

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