Presentation strategies. Personality self-presentation in social psychology: models and classifications

The problem of studying self-presentation as a subcategory of impression management is considered. Differences in the strategies and tactics of self-presentation of psychology students have been established empirically. It was revealed that psychology students with above-average social intelligence more often use actions and deeds in order to arouse sympathy among others, more often present behavior as moral and attractive, causing respect.

The most significant human needs are the needs for communication, acceptance, recognition and self-expression. It is these needs that predetermine the importance of forming a favorable impression of oneself, which, of course, is reflected in social success.

“Impression management” refers to “targeted activity to control and regulate information in order to create an appropriate image. As V.A. Yanchuk notes, if an attempt is made to control one's own image in the eyes of other people, it is about self-presentation. By self-presentation, we mean the process of conscious or unconscious, purposeful or spontaneous presentation of certain aspects of one's own self to others, carried out during interaction between people. It should be noted that the concepts of "impression management" and "self-presentation" are sometimes used in the literature as synonyms. Thus, in the “Psychological Atlas of Human Behavior” (R. Cialdini et al., 2008), self-presentation is defined as “a process by which we try to control the impressions that other people have about us; synonymous with self-impression management. V.A. Yanchuk, referring to the encyclopedia of social psychology, notes that self-presentation acts as a subcategory of impression management associated with a broader process of control and regulation of information received about other people, about objects and events.

V. Schlenker, considering self-presentation as a multi-purpose activity, notes that its study includes two types of research. Firstly, these are studies that look at how people, as subjects of activity, try to shape the attitudes and behavior of the audience through the presentation of "I-information". And secondly, these are studies that examine how people, like "targets", react to the self-presentation activities of others.

According to V. Schlenker, self-presentation is not only a superficial or manipulative activity, it can also include an attempt to present an image approaching the ideal to the audience, which reflects a slightly modified and improved self-concept. But this image is what the "actor" sincerely believes in himself.

Most authors distinguish three main directions in research on self-presentation - this is the problem of determining self-presentation, the problem of strategies and techniques for managing impressions, and the problem of individual differences in the tendency to self-presentation.

It has become traditional for classical theories of self-presentation to consider it from the point of view of motivational and personal determinants. So, according to E.E. Jones, T.S. Pittman, the process of self-presentation is based on the motive of power, i.e. the desire to maintain and expand influence in interpersonal relationships.

R. Arkin and A. Schutz consider self-presentation as a behavioral realization of the achievement motivation and the motivation to avoid failure and, in accordance with these motives, distinguish acquiring and defensive self-presentations. The acquiring self-presentation is characterized by the choice of adequate roles and tasks (corresponding to social status, education, etc.), the choice social environment, corresponding to the level of identification of the subject (communication with individuals equal in status). Defensive self-presentation is most often not realized and manifests itself in the fact that the subject chooses an environment that is inadequate for solving his problems: either guided by low requirements, or - prohibitively high.

Personal theories of self-presentation focus on the personal characteristics of the subject of self-presentation, i.e. they try to identify individual characteristics associated with the subject's tendency to control the impression of himself in the interaction partner. Among such individual features, in particular, public self-awareness (Fenigstein, Scheier) and self-monitoring (Snyder) are distinguished.

Situational theories of self-presentation consider those determinants of self-presentation that are associated with the characteristics of situations of interaction. Modern researchers of self-presentation distinguish two groups of situational determinants of self-presentation. Factors that increase the importance of self-presentation for achieving goals in interaction include publicity, dependence, and the likelihood of subsequent interaction. Lack of resources, the characteristics of the object of self-presentation, the value of approval, the discrepancy between the desired and the actual image are among the factors that increase the significance of the goals set by the subject.

N.A. Fedorova studied the influence of various situational parameters on the choice of verbal self-presentation techniques. The factor “Goals of interaction” turned out to be the most significant for the choice of self-presentation techniques. In a situation of interpersonal communication (goals focused on the development and maintenance of interpersonal relationships), techniques such as narrative, a story about interests and hobbies, social status, self-description through actions, confession of devotion, shifting the focus of the conversation. In a situation business communication(goals focused on achieving a specific pragmatic result) techniques such as summary, psychological portrait, and shine are used much more often.

One of the main questions that has always interested researchers in the field of self-impression management is the question of self-presentation strategies and tactics. Interest in this problem is due to its great practical significance, since each person, on the one hand, wants to skillfully master these strategies, and on the other hand, seeks to see and recognize them in the behavior of his communication partners.

The strategy of self-presentation is a set of behavioral acts of the individual, separated in time and space, aimed at creating a certain image in the eyes of others. Tactics of self-presentation is a certain technique by which the chosen strategy is implemented. A self-presentation strategy can include many individual tactics. Tactics of self-presentation is a short-term phenomenon and is aimed at creating the desired impression in a particular life situation.

Various authors distinguish different strategies, tactics and techniques of self-presentation, while there is no single definition of these concepts, and they are often used as synonyms. One of the first classifications of self-presentation strategies belongs to E.EJones, TS.Pittman. According to E.EJones, TS.Pittman can distinguish five main strategies for self-presentation, each of which is aimed at achieving certain types of power (the power of charm, the power of an expert, the power of fear, the power of a mentor and the power of compassion).

R. Baumeister distinguishes two strategies of self-presentation, differing in the ways in which they are achieved and in the rewards they achieve: “pleasant strategy” - aims to put oneself in a favorable light, is controlled by external criteria (adjustment to the audience) and achieves external reward - approval; "self-constructing" self-presentation - criteria and rewards within the person himself, a person maintains and strengthens his "ideal self", which makes an impression on others.

One of the latest classifications by a group of authors (S.J. Lee, B. Quigley, M. Nesler, A. Corbett, J. Tedeschi) includes twelve self-presentation tactics and has a practical advantage.

Based on this theory, a questionnaire on self-presentation tactics was developed. O. A. Pikuleva adapted the content characteristics of each of the tactics in relation to the context Russian culture. Studies conducted by O.A. Pikuleva on a Russian sample showed that preference is given to certain tactics depending on the social context, personal characteristics, as well as goals and objectives, mainly due to social status and professional activity.

Undoubtedly, the readiness of future psychologists for effective professional activity, successful professional adaptation in a rapidly changing modern world also depend on awareness in the sphere of self-presentation behavior.

The purpose of our study was to study the tactics of self-presentation of psychology students with different levels of social intelligence.

The following methods were used in the study: a scale for measuring self-presentation tactics (S.J. Lee, B. Quigley, modified by O.A. Pikuleva) and a method for studying social intelligence by J. Gilford and M. Sulliven, modified by E. S. Mikhailova. the study was attended by 3rd year students of the Faculty of Psychology of Grodno state university named after Ya. Kupala. The total sample size is 57 people.

The results of the study of social intelligence indicate that psychology students have the most developed abilities to foresee the consequences of people's behavior in a certain situation, to predict what will happen in the future, to understand the meanings of similar human verbal reactions depending on the context of the situation that caused them.

In the study sample of psychology students, three groups of respondents were identified, differing in the level of development of social intelligence: middle level development of SI, below average development of SI, above average development of SI. To assess the differences in the tactics of self-presentation of psychology students with above-average and below-average social intelligence, we used the Mann-Whitney U-test.

Reliably significant differences in self-presentation tactics between groups of students with different social intelligence were identified on such scales as desire to please, intimidation, negative assessment of others, and role model. Psychology students with above-average social intelligence more often use actions and deeds in order to arouse sympathy among others, more often present behavior as moral and attractive, causing respect. Psychology students with below average social intelligence are more likely to express negative and critical assessments of other people or groups with which these people are associated, more often make threats in order to arouse fear in the object of self-presentation.

Thus, for psychology students with higher social intelligence in more such a strategy of self-presentation as attractive behavior is typical, and psychology students with social intelligence below the average are characterized by “demonstration of strength and status”, i.e. such a strategy of self-presentation as power influence.

Bibliography

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B. A. Chiker. - St. Petersburg: Speech, 2008. - S. 88 - 102.

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In search of a scientific practical answer to the question of how effective self-presentation and self-presentation is carried out, we will analyze the strategies, techniques and methods of self-presentation offered by various authors. The purpose of this research work– search for technologies, experience management know-how that could be used in practice.

The term self-presentation is generally used interchangeably with impression management to refer to the many strategies and techniques an individual uses to create and control his external image and the impressions of himself that he displays to others.

In addition to the term self-presentation (tracing paper from English self-presentation), which is used relatively recently, for a long time, the concepts of self-presentation and self-presentation, used as synonyms, were more characteristic of the domestic tradition.

There are attempts to consider self-presentation as a behavioral realization of motivation. For example, R. Arkin and A. Schutz see in self-presentation the realization of the motivation to achieve or avoid failures and distinguish acquiring and defensive self-presentation on this basis.

An acquiring self-presentation expresses achievement motivation. It is characterized by the choice of adequate roles and tasks (corresponding to social status, education, etc.), the choice of a social environment corresponding to the level of identification of the subject (a person communicates with his peers).
Defensive self-presentation is a behavioral manifestation of the motivation to avoid failure. She is mostly unconscious. A person chooses an environment that is inadequate for solving problems: either with low requirements, or with prohibitively high ones (adventurous self-presentation).

Self-presentation according to R. Baumeister and A. Steinhilber is self-disclosure in interpersonal communication through the demonstration of one's thoughts, character, etc. This is an unconscious process, it reflects the social nature of a person, his need for recognition by other people. R. Baumeister and A. Steinhilber believe that a person needs self-disclosure, i.e. manifesting itself in the outside world. In the process of interpersonal communication, he presents his inner content: thoughts, character, values, beliefs. His goal is not only to impress, but also to demonstrate what he is.

1. The phenomenon of self-presentation: research by Erving Goffman

Wide notable work Erving Goffman's "Presentation of Self in Everyday Life" became for many years the basis of the analysis of the phenomenon of self-presentation.

Goffman argues that when a person appears in front of others, others usually seek to collect information about him or base their behavior on the basis of the information they already have. They will be interested in his socio-economic status, self-concept, attitude towards them, competence, creditworthiness, etc.

Information about a person helps to determine the nature of the situation; allows you to understand what a person expects from others and what they can expect from him. By understanding this, others will know how to behave better in order to evoke the desired reaction in the future.

There are many sources of information available to the public. They can pick up clues by drawing conclusions from behavior and appearance, using their past experience, or, more importantly, applying preconceived stereotypes without checking. They may also rely on a conjecture based on a set of psychological traits as a means of predicting a person's present and future behavior.

This self-expression (and, accordingly, the ability to impress) contains two points: what a person betrays and what betrays him. The first refers to direct speech messages or their substitutes. It is communication in the traditional and narrow sense. The second contains a wide range of activities that others may perceive as symptoms of acting. Viewers expect the performance to be played for reasons other than those stated in the information being broadcast. However, a person can deceive in the first case and pretend in the second.

The observer, according to Goffman, can only speculate: “We live by assumption. Let's say I'm your guest. You don't know, you can't define scientific methods that I will steal your money or your spoons. But, most likely, I will not do this, and, most likely, you will invite me to visit.

Thus, when an individual appears before the audience, he has to mobilize his activity in order to convey the impression in which he is interested. For example, a girl from a hostel might organize phone calls to give the impression of how popular she is.

When a person appears before the audience, his behavior will influence the outcome of the situation that should unfold. Sometimes he calculates his behavior in order to evoke the necessary reaction. And sometimes a person, although he calculates his behavior, remains unaware that he is doing it. In some cases, he intentionally and consciously expresses himself in a certain way, but he does so mainly because the traditions of his group or social status require such self-expression. Others, in turn, may be quite satisfied with the impression made on them, or they may misunderstand the situation.

Knowing that a person is more likely to present himself in a favorable light for him, viewers can divide what they observe into two parts: the first, which is relatively easy to manipulate at will - mostly words, and the second, which seems difficult to perceive and controlled, what gives out. This is the "fundamental asymmetry" of the communication process: a person is aware of one channel of information, and his viewers are aware of this channel, as well as another. However, it should be added that the art of recognizing the calculated efforts of the individual seems to be more easily improved than the ability of a person to manipulate his own behavior. The audience has an advantage over the actor.

Social relations are built on the principle that everyone with certain social characteristics has the moral right to expect that others will treat him in accordance with them and behave accordingly. It follows from this principle that a person who explicitly or implicitly demonstrates that he has a certain status must really be what he claims to be.

Summarizing the above, it can be noted that when a person appears in front of other people, he has many reasons to try to control the impression that he makes. It's all about acting and directing, the uncomplicated but completely obligatory ones that seem to be found everywhere in social life.

So, according to E. Hoffman, appearing in front of other people in whom he is interested (spectators), a person must mobilize his activity in order to make the right impression. This is done:

to elicit the desired response;
to appear "by that person";
because this is what the audience expects from a representative of this group;
because the social role requires it;
because otherwise he runs the risk of being misunderstood, which will change the situation as a whole;
to come to "understanding" and thus achieve their goals.

It should be well understood that the impression is a very delicate, subtle reality that can be destroyed by a small mistake.

Simone de Beauvoir cites the example of a woman who, having dressed, no longer imagines herself as she is, but as an image - as a sculpture or a picture; she is like an actor on a stage. She identifies herself with something unreal, frozen, perfect, the heroine of a novel, a portrait or a bust, and this gives her pleasure.

Erving Goffman writes about distortion as an integral part of performance.

The audience has a certain opportunity to find out how sincere such a performance is. The audience feels that the performance can be true or false. Therefore, they pay attention to specific details of the performance that can orient them.

Sometimes when we ask ourselves whether a representation is true or false, what we really mean is, is the person entitled to represent himself in this way? People tend to relate differently to those who present themselves in a different light in the interests of society, either casually or as a joke, than to those who pursue their game in pursuit of personal psychological or material interests. In addition, there are different attitudes about what should be for a certain age and gender. For example, a fifteen-year-old boy is not allowed to drive a car and drink in a bar, posing as an eighteen-year-old, and a woman can present herself younger and more attractive than she really is.

In a good marriage, spouses are expected to keep many facts about money, the past, bad or expensive addictions, loves, fears, children's behavior, and so on, secret. And only in this way will they be able to maintain the status quo of relations.

Often a distortion concerning just one of the aspects of a person's activity can make him worry and thereby spoil the whole idea. But for many social messages, it doesn't matter what the truth is: what they are trying to convey, or what they are trying to hide. Goffman singles out mystification as an obligatory attribute of representation.

There are words for conveying information and ritual words. To create a full-fledged communication, it is not enough just to convey information, you need to say a few words to indicate the situation. First of all, the status of the participants and the distance of communication should be indicated. This is very well understood and carried out in the army. For example, the captain of a ship will never dine with other officers and will always keep to himself, which, of course, will make familiarity towards him unacceptable. He must, as it were, put himself on a pedestal and stay there.

People don't want kings to be on friendly terms with, they want to see them as distant and mystical, like the Oracle of Delphi. As in the army fear and reverence are instilled in the inferior to the superior, so the success of the performance depends on the degree of reverence that the performer will be able to inspire in the audience. However, if the hoax fails, the actor will experience shame.

As K. Rizler noted, such is the medal of social reality, where, on the one hand, fear, and on the other, shame. The audience feels the secret mystical power of the actor, and the actor knows that his secrets are funny. The real secret of the mystery is that there really is no mystery, the main thing is not to let the public know about it.

2. Strategies and techniques of self-presentation by I. Jones and T. Pittman

Researchers I. Jones and T. Pittman understand self-submission (self-presentation) as the behavioral realization of the desire for power in interpersonal relationships. They identify five types of power and offer, respectively, five strategies for achieving it. Strategies and techniques of self-presentation according to Jones and Pittman, the goals of their implementation and types of power are summarized in Table. one.

Table 1. Self-presentation strategies according to I. Jones and T. Pittman

The first strategy of self-presentation is called "trying to please" (ingratiating). Trying to please is an attempt to present yourself attractive in the eyes of others. According to the authors, one who tries to please must hide the real purpose of his activity, or he will achieve the opposite effect. There are several main ways in which a person can try to achieve the goal of looking desirable to others:

The first way is to simply agree with what the object thinks and says.
The second way is to praise the dignity and personality of the subject.
The third way is to show favor to the person who needs to please.

But, as the authors note, these strategies require subtlety. If used carelessly, they betray the subject's intentions. In addition, they can cause additional problems. An object that needs to be liked is easier to deceive than observers, since people tend to be positive about themselves and their judgments. People believe that their opinions are correct, they are not very suspicious of those who agree with them. But this does not apply to outside observers who have their own sets of judgments. Therefore, a person seeking to please can raise his position in the eyes of the object and at the same time lower his position in the eyes of observers.

Self-promotion is another self-presentation strategy somewhat similar to the previous one. But if trying to please is an attempt to look attractive, then a person promoting himself is trying to look competent. For example, an applicant for a vacant position may choose to demonstrate his attractiveness, or he may show his competence. Trying to please is a strategy whose goal is to gain liking, while self-promotion is aimed at gaining respect from other people. Most effective method self-promotion - demonstration of their knowledge and skills.

The third strategy for gaining power, according to I. Jones and T. Pittman, is intimidation. The bully must try to convince the target that he is potentially dangerous, i.e. can and will cause trouble if the subject refuses to do what is asked of him. It is also a dangerous strategy. First, the bully may appear rude. Secondly, people do not like those who bully them, and they associate with them for good reasons.

The fourth strategy for achieving interpersonal influence is exemplification. The one who chooses this strategy must convince the object that he can serve as an example of, say, honesty or moral virtue. Thus, the one who exemplifies is, in a sense, self-promotion. However, the one who promotes himself demonstrates competence, while the one who explains by example demonstrates the importance of his personality. This strategy is also dangerous. The exemplary person runs the risk of being revealed to the object: in fact, he does not represent what he is trying to demonstrate.

The fifth strategy is supplication, a show of weakness and dependence. Prayer works, according to the authors, because it is a widespread norm in Western culture to take care of a person in need. But prayer also does not always guarantee success, moreover, weakness is not always attractive.

A tactic related to pleading to get attention is called self-handicapping. It is believed that a person tries to avoid interference and embarrassment. But there are circumstances when he can look for them. For example, if he is to be evaluated while solving a certain task and he is not sure that he is able to do it well. Self-complexity has two advantages:

if a man fails, it will provide him with an excuse.
if a person wins, it will increase his success.

Some people interfere with themselves for various reasons. People with high self-esteem can increase their achievements, while people with low self-esteem can use this strategy to protect themselves from failure.

If the interest is in impressing others, then it is necessary to create the appearance of interference. This can often be observed when, before performing any action, a person announces that he is not feeling well, which will undoubtedly prevent him from successfully completing his task. But if the interest is not in convincing others but in convincing oneself, then one must really have a handicap. Thus, self-complexity:

increases the value of success;
reduces the cost of defeat.

3. Impression Management Techniques by Robert Cialdini

R. Cialdini proposed two indirect impression management techniques. The first technique is called basking in reflected glory. Its essence lies in the use of someone else's success for the purpose of its self-presentation. In this case, two points need to be worked out:

First, choose the right object, the popularity of which can have an impact on a significant audience.
Secondly, it is correct to designate your attitude to this object. For this, according to R. Cialdini, it is possible that not direct declaration, but indirect indications, for example, the use of signs of social symbols, will be more effective.

The second technique was called R. Cialdini briefly - to harm (blasting). It consists in the deliberate exaggeration of the shortcomings of something or someone in order to increase one's own status in the eyes of others. Despite the fact that this dangerous machinery, as experiments have shown, it is quite often used.

4. Self-feeding techniques according to G.V. Borozdina

Self-feeding, according to G.V. Borozdina, lies in the art of purposefully attracting the recipient's attention to those (intentionally created) features of one's appearance that trigger the mechanisms of the partner's social perception. These mechanisms of social perception serve as the basis for the classification of self-presentation techniques [Borozdina, 1999].

Self-presentation of superiority is highlighting, emphasizing external signs of superiority in clothing, manner of speech, and behavior.
Self-delivery of attractiveness is the work expended on bringing clothes in line with external data.
Self-presentation of attitude is a demonstration to a partner of one's attitude towards him by verbal and non-verbal means.
Self-presentation of the state and causes of behavior is drawing attention to the reason for one's own actions, which seems to the subject the most acceptable.

During the implementation of these techniques, most often, according to G.V. Borozdina, simple, even naive means of self-feeding are used.

5. Conclusions

A review of the strategies, techniques, techniques and methods of self-presentation proposed by the authors allows us to conclude that, in general, the proposed recommendations for forming an impression can be divided into two groups. Separation criterion: a proposed way of organizing the communicator's behavior.

In accordance with the recommendations of the first group, the communicator is invited to choose an image of self-presentation in a social context and, using his own life experience try to implement it. This group includes the strategies of self-presentation by I. Jones and T. Pittman. In this case, the communicator is asked to first choose the type of person who seems charming or competent or dangerous or in need of support. Then, using your everyday experience, you should try to recreate this image (play a role) with the help of special techniques-techniques: flattery, boasting, threats, prayers, etc. It turns out that the image of self-presentation is chosen in a social context, and communicative techniques from everyday experience become the source of its embodiment. This group also includes self-complexity strategies and praise of the opponent's performance, as well as R. Cialdini's impression management techniques, since they involve the creation of a new image of oneself or an opponent, different from the one that exists in reality.

The second way to organize your behavior is to define character traits(features) of successful self-presentation and create your presentation as the sum of the selected features. This group includes self-feeding techniques by G.V. Borozdina, each of the techniques involves highlighting certain features and introducing them into your appearance or behavior in order to draw the recipient's attention to them. Signs (superiority, attractiveness, attitude, state and causes of behavior) are worked out and introduced into behavior separately and, summed up, create the actual technique, which is a way to control the impression of oneself.

So, all the strategies and techniques of self-presentation given in this section can be divided into two groups according to the proposed method of organizing behavior:

choice in the social context of the image of self-presentation and its embodiment on the basis of everyday experience;
search for signs of a successful self-presentation for this case, their development and introduction into one's own behavior.

Table 1. Self-presentation strategies according to I. Jones and T. Pittman

Strategy	Technics	Target
Trying to please (ingratiating)	Express agreement Flatter Show favor	Appear attractive (the power of charm)
Self-promotion, self-promotion (self-promotion)	Show off Demonstrate knowledge Demonstrate skills	Appear competent (expert power)
Intimidation	Make demands Threaten trouble	Appear dangerous (the power of fear)
Explanation by example (exemplification)	Show off your virtues	Appear to be exemplary (the power of a mentor)
Supplication	Begging Demonstrate weakness and dependence	Appear weak (the power of compassion)

The first strategy of self-presentation is called "trying to please" (ingratiating). Trying to please is an attempt to present oneself attractive in the eyes of others. According to the authors, one who tries to please must hide the real purpose of his activity, or he will achieve the opposite effect. There are several main ways in which a person can try to achieve the goal of looking desirable to others:

The first way is to simply agree with what the object thinks and says.

The second way is to praise the dignity and personality of the subject.

The third way is to show favor to the person who needs to please.

Self-promotion is another self-presentation strategy somewhat similar to the previous one. But if trying to please is an attempt to look attractive, then a person promoting himself is trying to look competent. For example, an applicant for a vacant position may choose to demonstrate his attractiveness, or he may show his competence. Trying to please is a strategy whose goal is to gain liking, while self-promotion is aimed at gaining respect from other people. The most effective way of self-promotion is to demonstrate your knowledge and skills.

The third strategy for gaining power, according to I. Jones and T. Pittman, is intimidation (intimidation). The bully must try to convince the target that he is potentially dangerous, i.e. can and will cause trouble if the subject refuses to do what is asked of him. It is also a dangerous strategy. First, the bully may appear rude. Secondly, people do not like those who bully them, and they associate with them for good reasons.

The fifth strategy is supplication, a show of weakness and dependence. Prayer works, according to the authors, because the norm is widespread in Western culture - taking care of a person in need. But prayer also does not always guarantee success, moreover, weakness is not always attractive.

if a man fails, it will provide him with an excuse.

if a person wins, it will increase his success.

increases the value of success;

reduces the cost of defeat.

A person consciously or unconsciously in a certain way presents himself to other people, and TS, in turn, form a certain impression about him based on the incoming information. This self-presentation includes what the person himself consciously creates (self-presentation), and what reflects its true content (self-expression).

Term self-presentation is used as a synonym for impression management to refer to the many strategies and techniques that an individual uses in creating and controlling his external image and the impression of himself that he shows to others.

Apart from the term self-presentation(tracing paper from English. self presentation), for the domestic tradition for a long time the concepts self-feed and self-presentation, used as synonyms. Etymologically related concept self-disclosure- has a broader meaning.

The formation and presentation of one's own desired image to others is studied within the framework of various scientific areas. Understanding of self-presentation in them has pronounced features. Self-presentation by various authors is considered as:

- a means of organizing interaction with other people to achieve their goals (I. Hoffman);
- the form social behavior(J. Tedeschi and M. Ries);
- a means of maintaining self-esteem (B. Schlenker and M. Weigold, M. Leary and R. Kowalski; D. Myers);
- a means of forming the image of "I" and self-esteem (J. G. Mead and C. Cooley);
- a means of self-expression (R. Baumeister and A. Steihilber);
- a technique for eliminating cognitive dissonance (F. Haider and L. Festinger);
- implementation of the motivation to achieve or avoid failures (R. Arkin and A. Schutz);
- creation of a state of objective self-consciousness as a result of the perception of other people's assessments (R. Wikland);
- a consequence of increased motivation as a result of focusing attention on oneself (G. Gleitman);
- manifestation of the desire for power in interpersonal relationships (I. Jones and T. Pittman);
- personality trait (A. Festinger, M. Sherier and A. Bass, M. Snyder);
- presenting their personal qualities in connection with the need for a trusting relationship (L. B. Filonov) or to establish interaction (R. Parfenov);
- influence on the attitude of others (A. A. Bodalev), the direction of the perception of a partner along a certain path (Yu. S. Krizhanskaya and V. P. Tretyakov, G. V. Borozdina);
- creating a certain impression and regulating one's own behavior (Yu. M. Zhukov);
– Advertising activity(A.N. Lebedev-Lubimov).

One of the most cited researchers in the field of self-presentation is the American sociologist I. Hoffman. His work "Presenting oneself to others in Everyday life", published in 1959, has been highly significant for many researchers of the phenomenon of self-presentation for a number of decades, so we will dwell on it in more detail.

I. Hoffmann's theory is devoted to social interaction and management of the impression produced in this interaction. Introducing the concept of "social dramaturgy", I. Hoffman described interpersonal behavior as a performance in which actors are involved. In this performance we get to know each other in these roles; in them we recognize ourselves. The mask-image that we create about ourselves, the roles we play, are also masks of our true self - the self that we desire to have. Eventually, playing a role becomes second nature and an integral part of who we are. We don't choose our own mask by chance, but prefer the one that best portrays who we want to be. Hoffmann was the first to raise the question of the existence within the same person of two "I": "I" - for myself and "I" - for others, subordinate to the goals pursued in interaction. Subsequently, he came to the conclusion that there is also a third "I" - "pure", or "unprocessed", which manifests itself in extreme situations, for example, in prison or a lunatic asylum.

Self-presentation strategy is a set of behavioral acts of a person, separated in time and space, aimed at creating a certain image in the eyes of others.

Tactics of self-presentation is a certain technique by which the chosen strategy is implemented. Tactics of self-presentation is a short-term phenomenon and is aimed at creating the desired impression in a particular life situation.

A self-presentation strategy can include many individual tactics.

E. Jones and T. Pittman in 1982 created one of the first classifications of self-presentation strategies.

Understanding self-presentation as the behavioral realization of the desire for power in interpersonal relationships. They identify five "types" of power and offer, respectively, five strategies for achieving it.

In particular, stand out:

Ø the “trying to please” strategy, which involves an attempt to present oneself attractive in the eyes of others;

Ø a strategy of intimidation, involving the presentation of oneself as an imperious, potentially dangerous person;

Ø pleading strategy, that is, presenting oneself as weak and defenseless in order to evoke sympathy from the audience;

Ø exemplary strategy, that is, presenting oneself as morally sound in order to demonstrate the significance of one's personality and

Ø self-promotion strategy, which involves trying to appear competent in order to gain respect from other people.

The most detailed classification of self-presentation strategies was carried out by A. Schutz , which, based on the generalization a large number literature devoted to this problem, has identified its own criteria for categorizing tactics and strategies of self-presentation. In the classification proposed by A. Schutz, four styles of self-presentation: assertive (assertive), aggressive (offensive), protective (protective) and justified (defensive). This classification is based on the analysis of two variables: 1) the leading motives of self-presentation (the desire to "look good", that is, to obtain social approval - the desire "not to look bad" or to avoid significant losses in social approval); 2) activity or passivity of self-presentation behavior.

Assertive self-presentation, according to A. Schutz, involves active, but not aggressive attempts to form a favorable impression of oneself. In the process of assertive self-presentation, people represent the traits they want in a given situation. Assertive self-presentation includes strategies for self-promotion, exemplary behavior, demonstration of strength and power, and a strategy for identifying with a specific group. The demonstration of power strategy is not aimed at creating fear, but should convince the target person that the subject of self-presentation is able to fulfill promises and fulfill requirements.

A subject with an aggressive self-presentation uses an aggressive way of presenting the desired image. This style of self-presentation is characterized by a high level of activity and a desire to gain social approval. According to A. Schutz, the ways to implement this style of self-presentation are the strategy of belittling the opposition (irony, critical assessments), the strategy of “criticism of criticism” (criticism directed at the person who asks a critical question or expresses critical remarks) and the strategy of “restricting the topic of discussion”, which implies the desire change the topic of discussion.

Defensive self-presentation involves a "passive" desire to avoid a negative impression. Avoidance of public attention, minimal self-disclosure, cautious self-description reflecting the desire not to draw attention to one's abilities, minimization of social interactions, the desire to remain silent, friendly but passive interaction - such behavior can be classified as defensive self-presentation.

Justified self-presentation is characterized by activity and the desire to avoid significant losses in social approval. A. Schutz refers to the strategies that implement self-justifying self-presentation: the strategy of denial (“Nothing happened, nothing terrible happened”), the strategy of reversing, which implies agreement that the main events took place and proving that they were not evaluated negatively ("Everything was wrong"). This may also include apologies (“I couldn’t do anything”), excuses that involve acknowledging the negative event and asserting that it was inevitable or legal (“It was right”, “It should have been done”), as well as a concession strategy that involves taking full responsibility for negative events, demonstrating remorse, promising that such actions will not be repeated.

R. Baron argues that the management of impressions has a lot various forms. However, most of them fall into two main categories: strengthening one's own position- attempts to maintain our own image and strengthening the position of the interlocutor- attempts to make the person we are interested in feel comfortable in our presence.

Specific types of self-improvement tactics include actions to improve one's own appearance. This can be achieved through changes in clothing, personal care (make-up, stylish hair, use of perfume), and thoughtful use of non-verbal cues. Among the most important tactics of strengthening the position of the interlocutor are compliments and flattery (when we shower the person we are interested in with praise, even if he does not deserve them); expression of agreement with the opinion of this person; manifestation high level interest in him (we catch his every word); small favors for him personally; requests for advice or feedback; expressing sympathy for him in a verbal or non-verbal way.

R. Cialdini refers to the most famous tactics of positive self-presentation as the tactics of enjoying reflected glory, which he defines as a process of demonstrating one's connection with successful, high-status people or events.

Studies of strategies and tactics of self-presentation of the personality in domestic social psychology are not too numerous. In the studies of E. A. Sokolova-Bausch, already existing and well-known communication techniques are considered as self-presentation techniques. E. A. Sokolova-Bausch identified non-verbal communication techniques that effectively influence the formation of favorable and unfavorable impressions about the communicator and the recipient. So, with the help of non-verbal technique of “mirroring” the poses, movements, facial expressions of a communication partner, the communicator most often forms a favorable impression of himself (the impression of a “cultured person in communication”). The recipient most often makes a favorable impression (the impression of an attentive and understanding listener), adjusting to the breath of the interlocutor.

N. A. Fedorova considers verbal techniques of self-presentation (includes ways of organizing the text and rhetorical techniques) and non-verbal techniques, which include: appearance, clothing, demeanor, environment, speech manners, postures, facial expressions, gestures, behavioral techniques. According to the criterion of the subject of self-presentation, N. A. Fedorova distinguishes between direct techniques, when the subject uses information about himself for self-presentation, and indirect techniques, when the subject uses information about other people or phenomena for self-presentation.

10 Interpersonal attraction and close relationships

attraction- (from French - attraction, attraction, attraction) - in social psychology - the process of mutual attraction of people to each other; formation of attractiveness of one person for another; the mechanism of formation of attachments, friendly feelings, sympathy, love; positive feelings towards another individual, the desire to be in his society.

Research into factors of interpersonal attraction began in the 1930s with an analysis of questions such as who attracts whom and why. Ya.L. Moreno and T. Newcomb. In the same years, the most popular bestseller by Dale Carnegie, How to Win Friends and Influence People, was published, which went through fifty reprints in the United States and became the same bestseller in the 1980s in our country.

A new wave of research has formed on the wave of attitude research. Attraction began to be considered as an attitude directed at a specific person and covering all three of its traditionally distinguished components: cognitive (ideas about a person), affective (feelings for a person) and behavioral (tendencies towards certain behavior in relationships with a person). The theoretical constructions were dominated by the ideas of symmetry, balance and correspondence between them. For example, in F. Haider's theory of balance, it was stated that people have a positive attitude towards those who show sympathy for themselves, i.e. love their friends and hate their enemies.

A significant part of the phenomena of attraction is explained by the theory of "rewards - costs" by J. Homans: a person weighs the possible costs of achieving the goal and the benefits received. If the costs pay off - the relationship is positive, if they exceed the profit, then the relationship becomes negative. This theory predicts that we will like people whose opinions are similar to ours, and this will happen because they reward us by confirming our rightness with their consent, i.e. help us to believe that our opinions are "correct". We will like people who cooperate with us, not those who compete, because cooperative behavior is by definition rewarding: the person who cooperates with us, helps us, listens to our ideas, makes suggestions, and shares our difficulties.

In the 1970s, the Lot model of reinforcement was developed, which accumulates the ideas of the theory of balance and exchange, according to which the inclusion of reinforcements in relationships is a decisive prerequisite for interpersonal attraction. If your actions are reinforced by other people, then an attraction is formed in relation to them.

According to Byrne and Kloa's model of reinforcement - emotions:

- people identify incentives for rewards or punishments that affect them and strive to find the former and avoid the latter;

positive feelings are associated with rewards, and negative feelings are associated with punishment;

Stimuli are evaluated in terms of the feelings they evoke. The evaluation is positive in case of positive feelings and negative in case of negative feelings;

Any neutral stimulus associated with positive reinforcement produces positive feelings, while any neutral stimulus is associated with negative feelings.

Accordingly, the evoking of sympathy or antipathy by specific people is associated with the feelings that are associated with them.

Another theory often invoked to explain interpersonal attraction is Adams' theory of equality. This theory is related to the consideration of two types of situations:

1. Mutual exchange of resources (for example, marital relations).

2. An exchange in which scarce resources are distributed (for example, compensation for damage).

In both situations, the theory of equality postulates that people strive for a fair distribution of resources based on the contribution of everyone. According to Adams, equality between two individuals A and B takes place when the contribution and result obtained by A is equal to the contribution and result obtained by B.

A person deduces a kind of proportion of what he should invest in these relations and what he should receive as a result. This proportion correlates with the proportions of other participants in the relationship. If the proportions are equal, then the distribution of resources is considered fair and equal, and vice versa. Thus, a relationship is considered equal if all participants are proportionate in their contributions to and outcomes of the relationship. This proportionality is usually determined by the rule of fair distribution introduced by Homans.

The logic of the proposed theoretical construction is verified and justified in relation to the rational, devoid of emotional coloring and subjective interpretation of the system of relations. The logic of the proposed theoretical construction is verified and justified in relation to the rational, devoid of emotional coloring and subjective interpretation of the system of relations. But in real life a person is far from always rational in his feelings and actions and is not always likened to an accountant who balances relationships.