The concept of “joint activity. Psychological structure of joint activity

Joint activity - an organized system of activity of interacting individuals, aimed at the expedient production (reproduction) of objects of material and spiritual culture. hallmarks joint activities are:

1) spatial and temporal co-presence of participants, creating the possibility of direct personal contact between them, including the exchange of actions, the exchange of information, as well as mutual perception;

2) the presence of a single goal - an anticipated result of joint activity that meets the common interests and contributes to the realization of the needs of each of the individuals included in the joint activity,

3) the presence of organizational and management bodies, which are embodied in the person of one of the participants, endowed with special powers, or distributed between them;

4) division of the process of joint activities between the participants, due to the nature of the goal, means and conditions for achieving it, the composition and skill level of the performers. This implies the interdependence of individuals, which is manifested either in the final product of joint activity, or in the very process of its production. If in the first case individual operations are carried out in parallel and do not depend on the sequence of actions of others, then in the second they are interdependent (specialized and hierarchized), since they must be implemented simultaneously as functionally different components of a complex operation or in a strict sequence, when the result of one operation serves as a condition for the beginning of another. An example of a highly specialized joint activity is a collective scientific activity, which involves an extensive system social roles its members;

5) the emergence of interpersonal relations in the process of joint activity, which are formed on the basis of subject-specific functional-role interactions and acquire a relatively independent character over time. Being initially conditioned by the content of joint activity, interpersonal relations, in turn, have an impact on its process and results. IN social psychology joint activity is considered as the main condition for the socio-psychological integration of the individuals included in it. Joint activity objectively has a multi-purpose character, which is due to its intra- and inter-system links. The fact that acts of individual activity are a condition for the existence and reproduction of both the individual himself and the processes of group activity as a whole indicates the interpenetration and mutual enrichment of individual and joint activities, the interaction of individual motivational and social normative conditions for joint activity.

Signs of collaboration include:

The common goal of the participants in the activity;

General motivation

Combining individual activities (formation of a single whole); - division of the activity process into separate functionally related operations and their distribution among the participants;

Coordination of individual activities of participants (strict sequence of operations). It is achieved by managing

- management (an important feature of joint activities);

Single end result;

Single space and simultaneity of individual activities.

Psychological structure of joint activity

A common goal is an ideally presented common result towards which a community of individuals strives. The general goal is divided into private and specific tasks;

A common motive is a force that impels individuals to joint activity;

Joint actions - elements of activity aimed at the implementation of current tasks;

Overall result.

Types of joint activities in Umansky

Professor of psychology Lev Ilyich Umansky (1921-1983), devoted himself to the study of the psychology of organizational activity. The professor proposed a typology of joint activities

Under the type of joint activity or the form of organization of joint activity, it is customary to understand the way of interaction between the participants in the group solution of problems or problems. According to L.I. Umansky, three types of joint activity can be classified as basic: joint-interacting, joint-sequential and joint-individual.

1) The jointly interacting type of activity is characterized by the obligatory participation of everyone in solving a common problem. At the same time, the intensity of work of performers, as a rule, is approximately the same, the features of their activities are determined by the leader and, as a rule, are not very variable. The effectiveness of the group equally depends on the contribution of each of its members (Fig. 5.5.). An illustration of such a variant of the organization of joint activities can serve as a joint movement of weights.

Rice. 5.5. Collaborative type of activity

2) The joint-sequential type of activity differs from the joint-interacting type by the time distribution, as well as the order of participation of everyone in the work (Fig. 5.6.). The sequence assumes that at first one participant is included in the work, then the second, the third, etc. The peculiarity of the activity of each participant is set by the specifics of the goals of the joint transformation of the feedstock into the final product.

A typical example of a joint-sequential type of interaction is a conveyor, when the product of the activity of one of the participants in the process, passing to another, becomes an object of labor for the latter.

Rice. 5.6. Joint-sequential type of activity

So, for example, in the manufacture of boards, first someone cuts down a tree, then someone transports it to the factory, then Someone separates the trunk from the branches, then someone measures the trunk and calculates how many and what size boards he can get and what there should be a sawing scheme, and only then the trunk goes for sawing.

3) The joint-individual type of activity differs in that the interaction between labor participants is minimized (Fig. 5.7). Each of the performers performs its own scope of work, the specifics of the activity are set by the individual characteristics and professional position of each. Each of the participants in the process presents the result of labor in the agreed form and in a certain place. Face-to-face interaction may be almost non-existent and take place in indirect forms (for example, via telephone, computer networks etc.). What unites different performers is only the subject of labor, which each of the participants processes in a specific way. Examples of this type of activity are the individual carrying of weights or the independent analysis of different aspects of the same phenomenon by different specialists.

Rice. 5.7. Joint-individual type of activity

Recently, specialists have singled out a special type of joint activity - joint-creative. This type of organization of collective activity originated in the fields of science and art, where participants in scientific or creative project created something completely new, often unique, that could not be created according to the existing rules and technologies. In these collectives, a special type of activity is created - co-creation, when each participant in the process is an equal creator of something new. The laws of creativity require taking into account each, even the most “crazy” vision, because in the cauldron of general discussion, a discovery can appear from the most absurd idea. This type is characterized by the special activity of each of the participants in the interaction process, namely: activity in terms of increasing their own professional competence through participation in collective activities. On the one hand, the features of the joint-creative type of activity enable each participant to try different ways activities, to be enriched by the ways of work inherent in other specialists and areas of work, and on the other hand, the synergistic (mutually enriching) effect gives a powerful impetus to the development of the group itself that performs the activity. However, in this type of activity, the “traces” of the individual contributions of the participants are fundamentally indistinguishable.

Members of such a team get the opportunity to work in completely different professional positions and perform various collective roles depending on the task facing the group. Therefore, these groups usually have high flexibility, variability and composition, and internal structure, depending on the tasks set and the conditions for their implementation. This is how creative teams work, in which everyone is given a full opportunity for their own self-expression and, nevertheless, the goal of the group as a whole is achieved - the creation of a new, culturally valuable work or product.

People in a situation of jointly interacting activity are characterized by a high orientation towards collective goals, commitment to the authority of the leader, orientation towards group morality (norms and values), as well as traditional ways of behavior. A member of an organization with this type of technology is characterized by a high commitment to the group, and the most severe punishment will be expulsion from the group of his own kind.

Employees of an organization with a joint-sequential type of activity are characterized by high technological discipline, adherence to the norms and rules formulated in instructions, regulations and other regulatory documents. Such technologies are typical for complex industrial production, manufacturing industry.

Participants in the process of joint-individual activity are characterized by high initiative, passionarity, orientation to results and individual achievements. Such specialists put their own goals and values, tend to independently develop ways to achieve the goal and are able to operate effectively in a situation of intra-organizational competition. Such technologies are typical for modern science-intensive industries, complex technologies that require very high training. At labor collectives working in this technology, there may be problems of organization general activities between various specialists who know their own business well, but are little oriented towards understanding the peculiarities of the work of colleagues, concentrating rather on the problems of their own activities than on the problems of the organization as a whole.

Participants in joint creative activity are characterized, as noted, by a special orientation - an orientation towards professional development. It is fundamentally different from the aspirations of participants in joint-individual activities, in this case it is not so much about deepening within the framework of one problem, specialty, but about working in border areas human activity. A professional, unlike a specialist, is able and even strives to go beyond his specialty and work using the tools of other specialists, which allows him not only to find something new, but also to deepen his understanding of the problems.

Thus, participants in the joint-creative type of activity have a pronounced orientation towards cooperation with specialists from different fields, the flexibility to change positions, and an orientation towards individual development. For teams working in this type of activity, the main value is the achievement of new knowledge, the creation of conditions for individual development, respect for the rights of each participant. In contrast to the joint-interacting type of activity in organizations of the joint-creative type, it is impossible to solve problems by a majority of votes and introduce the dictatorship of the majority. Problems must be resolved by consensus, and the final decision must necessarily leave the possibility of realizing the legitimate interests of the minority, their rights can never be violated.

Psychological features of the joint life of the group A.L. Zhuravlev (from the source indicated by her, here the story is mainly)

Development of the concept of joint activity in modern domestic psychology

Over the past 40 years in our country,

but a large number of psychological studies on the problem of joint activity, which have made a certain contribution to the formation of the corresponding concept, which has become one of the most common groups and collectives in psychology, especially labor collectives. This problem was formulated in different ways, not only in different periods of its development, but also by different Researchers with its formulation are primarily associated with such terms as “group activity”, “group activity”, “group interaction”, “collective activity”, “joint activity”, etc. Despite some differences in the formulation of the problem, as well as changes as a result of its natural development, the problem of joint activity is still in the focus of attention of researchers, primarily social psychologists, labor and management psychologists.

In this case, signs mean distinctive features, characteristics of joint activity as an integral and relatively independent phenomenon. In fact, what stands out is what is most characteristic, typical for joint activities. The signs of cooperation developed by K. Marx were taken as the basis for the selection of such signs. In political economy and sociology, this question has been detailed analysis. The concept of "cooperation" performs a methodological function in the psychological study of joint activity. Various types of cooperation are considered as specific types of cooperation. professional types joint activities.

The cooperation of people in labor is caused by the need to master such an object of labor, which is inaccessible to an individual, and if it is accessible, then only by its part. Hence, the presence of a common goal for the participants included in the activity should be considered an obligatory sign of joint activity.

In addition, participants in joint activities must have an incentive to work together, that is, have a common motivation.

Common goal and common motivation- obligatory conditions not just for the implementation of the SD by its various participants, but for the formation of a certain labor community from individual individuals, i.e., a team as a subject of joint activity, which is necessary in order to achieve its common final goals<.>. The formation of a certain community from them leads not to the summation of individual productive forces, but to their multiplication: the combined productive force becomes greater than the sum of the productive forces of individual workers. Consequently, the association, combination or conjugation of individual activities (and, accordingly, individuals), understood as the formation of a single whole, is an essential feature of joint activity. Jointness as a special quality of activity is generated by such an association of individuals, in which various interrelations and interdependencies arise between them, given by specific types activities.

Joint activities can be carried out in conditions of different tightness of people's ties with each other. This issue has been repeatedly studied specifically, as a result, several levels of interconnectedness and interdependence of participants in joint activities have been identified. So, for example, N.N. Obozov proposed a generalized and most complete classification of interconnectedness (1979, 1997). We present it briefly below.

  1. Isolation (physical and social). This is an extremely rare form of organization of human activity. Lack of interconnectedness is usually relative.
  2. Assumed relationship. It is known that not only real interaction and communication between people change their attitude towards each other, but the latter can occur as a result of the intended interaction, the intended communication, i.e., when waiting for interaction, a person evaluates other people depending on the situation he assumes.
  3. Interconnection by the type of "silent presence" of other people when a person performs any individual activity. The most characteristic feature of the interconnectedness of this level is the so-called "public effect", which consists in changing the characteristics of individual activity and human behavior under the influence of the passive presence of other people.
  4. Interrelationship of the type "influence and mutual influence", carried out with the help of verbal and non-verbal means of influence, for example, through the opinions and assessments of participants in joint activities.
  5. The active, or efficient, interconnectedness of people through the means of joint action. This kind of interconnectedness includes a wide range of joint activities. Effective interconnectedness can have a different degree of manifestation: from partial, or minimal, to complete, or maximum, when the actions of one participant become impossible without the actions of other people.
  6. Collectivist interconnectedness, which represents a qualitatively new step in development. The interrelationship of this level, firstly, may include the features of the previous levels, and secondly, it is characterized by the greatest consistency of the personally significant, group and socially valuable content of SD. At the same time, the personal and group in the content of SD are subordinated to the socially significant goals of joint activity.

The association of individuals and the simultaneous performance by them of the same or similar labor operations are characteristic, according to K. Marx, only for the simplest types of cooperation. “If the labor process is complex, then the mere fact of uniting a significant mass of workers together makes it possible to distribute various operations among different workers ...” (Golovakha, 1979, p. 339). The division of a single process of activity into separate functionally related operations and their distribution among participants is the next characteristic feature of SD.

The distribution of individual activities takes place in a community (group) created to perform joint activities, and characterizes the functional structure of this community.<...>. The distribution of functions (actions, operations, activities), or, in the words of B.F. Lomova (1981), “task specification” (p. 20) in joint activities cannot be purely random, and each of the functions complements each other and determines the mutual dependence of the participants in the SD. An important position in this regard was formulated by R.F. Abulkhanov (1982), who wrote:

“The further the specialization of each worker has gone, the greater their dependence on each other in labor processes, the greater the role of the community that unites them as a collective producer of a certain product” (p. 25).

Therefore, the structuredness of joint activity is one of the most important properties of a collective subject.

Joint activity requires not spontaneous, but strictly coordinated, distributed and interrelated actions, operations, functions, and duties. Coordination of individual activities of participants in joint activities is a necessary and essential feature of it. Coordination provides for a strict sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined program. Such coordination is usually carried out taking into account the numerous characteristics of the activity: spatial, temporal, pace, intensity, rhythm, etc.

Coordination is achieved through control. The need to manage individual activities sets a qualitatively new level of complexity for joint activities. In individual activity, as a rule, a person himself programs his actions, intensity, volume of work, usually without making them dependent on the actions of other people. Joint activities cannot be carried out without establishing clear links between different operations, and therefore, between different participants, without appropriate coordination of their activities. It is joint activity that gives rise to managerial work, a characteristic feature of which is the focus on the participants in joint activities, and through them on the subject of joint work.

The next sign of SD is the presence of a single final result (total product) for its participants. Joint activity just arises in order to achieve a result at all (in the event of the complete impossibility of achieving it by one person) or to be achieved in shorter periods of time, would be more complete, more High Quality etc. A single end result must be correlated with the common goals of joint activities and thereby determine how the joint activities were really purposeful. Comparison of a single result with the costs of achieving it allows you to determine the effectiveness or efficiency (productivity) of joint activities. The overall result can also be correlated with the individual costs and results of individual participants in joint activities in order to assess the individual contribution of each to the results of the SD.

A necessary condition for the implementation of joint activities is a single spatio-temporal stay and functioning of the participants in the SD (collective subject). The presence of a single space and the simultaneous performance of individual activities by different people can be considered as elementary signs of cooperation, but such, without which joint activities cannot develop. Many modern views joint labor activity generated by scientific and technological progress (for example, space exploration, interaction through electronic means etc.), may have unstable and indistinctly defined boundaries of the “single space”.

ACTIVITIES IN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS.

Plan

1. Signs, structure and dynamics of joint activities. Model of regulation of joint activity.

2. Phylo- and ontogeny of joint activity. Stages of development of joint activities.

3. The relationship of communication and joint activities. Motivation. Phenomenology of motivation

4. Approaches and models for describing motivation

5. Motivation for learning, behavior and career choice

6. The influence of motivation on the success of educational activities

1 . Signs, structure and dynamics of joint activities

Signs of joint activity (JA) are usually understood as its distinctive features as a holistic and relatively independent phenomenon. To the main featured joint activities include:

1) a single goal for the participants included in the activity; .

2) general motivation;

3) associations, combinations or conjugations of individual activities (and the individual), understood as the formation of a single whole;

4) division of a single process of activity into separate functionally related operations and their distribution among participants;

5) coordination of individual activities of participants, which provides for a strict sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined program. Such coordination is usually carried out taking into account the numerous characteristics of the activity: spatial, temporal (tempo, intensity, rhythm), etc. It is achieved through management;

6) management - the most important feature and attribute of SD;

7) a single end result (total product);

8) a single space and simultaneity in the performance of individual activities by different people.

Psychological structure SD includes a number of components : common goals, motives, actions and results.

The overall goal of a joint activity is a central component of its structure. The goal is understood as an ideally presented common result, to which the community of individuals (group subject) strives. The general goal can be divided into more specific and specific tasks, the gradual solution of which brings the collective subject closer to the goal. An obligatory component of the psychological structure of SD is a common motive that encourages the community of individuals to work together.

The next component of joint activity is joint action, i.e. such elements of it that are aimed at fulfilling the current (operational and fairly simple) tasks of the SD. The structure of joint activities is completed by the overall result obtained by its participants.

A.N.Leontiev singles out individual (special) activities in the "general flow of activity" according to the criterion of the motives that motivate them. Next comes the level of actions - processes that obey conscious goals. Finally, this is the level of operations that directly depend on the conditions for achieving a specific goal.

Targeted or object-directed interaction between individuals (and, therefore, between individual activities) can, in the first approximation, be taken as a "unit" of psychological analysis of SD, which reveals its qualitative specifics (similar to how an objective action makes up the specifics of an individual).

In joint activities, as a rule, several of the most typical strategies behavior of its participants in relation to partners:

a) assistance as effective assistance to others, active contribution to the achievement of the overall goals of the SD;

b) counteracting the achievement of goals by other participants in the SD, committing actions that are inconsistent with them, going against the desires, opinions, behavior of partners in interaction;

c) avoidance of interaction, i.e. active care, avoidance of interaction with partners, even in cases where the situation and circumstances not only facilitate, but also require the interaction of participants in the SD to achieve common goals.

Researchers identify a number of socio-psychological types interactions. Let's list them.

1. Cooperation: both partners in interaction actively help each other, actively contribute to the achievement of the individual goals of each and the common goals of the Board of Directors.

2. Confrontation: both partners oppose each other and impede the achievement of the individual goals of each.

3. Avoidance of interaction, i.e. both partners try to avoid active cooperation.

4. Unidirectional assistance, when one of the participants in the SD contributes to the achievement of the individual goals of the other, and the second evades interaction with him.

5. Unidirectional counteraction, i.e. one of the partners hinders the achievement of the goals of the other, and the second evades interaction with the first.

6. Contrasting interaction: one of the participants tries to assist the other, and the second resorts to a strategy of active opposition to the first (in such situations, such opposition may be masked in one form or another).

7. Compromise interaction, when both partners show separate elements, both assistance and opposition

The main features of joint activities and subject properties SD are closely interconnected. Among the main characteristics of the subject of joint activity, it is necessary to single out purposefulness, motivation, the level of integrity (integration), structuredness, consistency, organization (controllability), performance (productivity), spatial and temporal features of living conditions.

Purposefulness group subject of activity represents the desire for the main goal.

motivation as a property of a group subject of activity, it characterizes an active, interested and effective attitude (motivation) to joint activities.

Under integrity (or integration) of the collective subject of activity is understood as the internal unity of its constituent elements. Integrity is evaluated by a set of the following parameters: the density of functional connections between its members, the indicators of which are the frequency and intensity of contacts between them; level of functional interconnectedness; the ratio of the number of jointly performed functions to their total number; type of integrity of the collective subject, manifested in the nature of the dominant links between members of the team.

An important property of a group subject of activity is its structuredness , which means the clarity and rigor of the mutual distribution of functions, tasks, rights, duties and responsibilities between members of the team, the certainty of its structure. Empirical indicators of structuredness can be the dominant ways of distributing functions (mutual complementation, safety net, duplication), ways of taking responsibility for the performance of functions in a team (concentration, distribution, diffusion of responsibility), characteristics of business mutual influence, etc.

Consistency is a harmonious combination of group members, the mutual conditioning of their actions. The consistency parameter is, first of all, the type or nature of the coordination (correlation) of the actions of the group members, which can be assessed using the following indicators: the dominant ways of resolving disagreements and contradictions, the leading "zone" of the coordination of the actions of the group members, the level, conflict and typical ways of its behavior participants in conflict situations etc.

organization generalized subject of activity means orderliness, composure, subordination to a certain order of joint activities, the ability to act accurately, in accordance with a predetermined plan (plannedness).

An integral property of a collective subject of activity is its effectiveness b, characterizing the ability to achieve a positive outcome.

The problem of joint activity was formulated differently not only in different periods of its development, but also by different researchers. First of all, such terms as “group activity”, “group activity”, “group interaction”, “collective activity”, “joint activity”, etc. are connected with its formulation. Despite some differences in the formulation of the problem, as well as changes as a result of its natural development, the problem of joint activity still remains the focus of attention of researchers, primarily social psychologists, labor and management psychologists. The hallmarks of joint activity (JA) are usually its distinctive features as a holistic and relatively independent phenomenon. To the main featured joint activities include:

  • 1) a single goal for the participants included in the activity;
  • 2) general motivation;
  • 3) associations, combinations or conjugations of individual activities (and individuals), understood as the formation of a single whole;
  • 4) division of a single process of activity into separate functionally related operations and their distribution among participants;
  • 5) coordination of individual activities of participants, which provides for a strict sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined program and taking into account the characteristics of the activity;
  • 6) management - the most important feature and attribute of SD;
  • 7) a single end result (total product);
  • 8) a single space and the simultaneity of the performance of individual activities by different people.

Psychological structure of SD includes such components as common goals, motives, actions and results. The overall goal of a joint activity is a central component of its structure. Under goal is understood as an ideally presented common result, which the community of individuals (a group subject) seeks to achieve. The general goal can be divided into more specific and specific tasks, the gradual solution of which brings the collective subject closer to the goal. An obligatory component of the psychological structure of SD is a common motive that encourages the community of individuals to work together (i.e., direct motivating force). The next component of joint activity is joint action, i.e. such elements of it that are aimed at fulfilling the current (operational and fairly simple) tasks of the SD. The structure of joint activities is completed by the overall result obtained by its participants.

A. N. Leontiev in the "general flow of activity" highlights different levels. First, these are separate (special) activities - according to the criterion of the motives that prompt them. Next comes the level of actions - processes that obey conscious goals. Finally, this is the level of operations that directly depend on the conditions for achieving a specific goal.

Targeted or object-directed interaction between individuals (and hence between individual activities) can, in the first approximation, be taken as a “unit” of psychological analysis of SD, which reveals its qualitative specifics (similar to how an objective action makes up the specifics of an individual).

Usually distinguish three forms, or models, of organizing joint activities:

  • 1) each participant does his part common work independently of the other;
  • 2) the common task is performed sequentially by each participant;
  • 3) there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others. Their real existence depends on the conditions of activity, its goals and content.

In joint activities, control by the participants themselves is noticeably activated (self-control, self-examination, mutual control, mutual examination), which affects the performance part of the activity, including the speed and accuracy of individual and joint actions.

In joint activities, as a rule, several of the most typical strategies of behavior of its participants are used, which determine the main socio-psychological interaction types participants.

  • 1. Cooperation: cooperation partners assist each other, actively contribute to the achievement of the individual goals of each and the common goals of the Board of Directors.
  • 2. Confrontation: partners oppose the achievement of goals by other participants in the SD, perform actions that are inconsistent with them, as opposed to the desires, opinions, and behavior of partners in interaction.
  • 3. Avoiding interaction those. active care, avoidance of interaction with partners, even in cases where the situation and circumstances not only facilitate, but also require the interaction of participants in the SD to achieve common goals.
  • 4. unidirectional promotion, when one of the participants in the SD contributes to the achievement of the individual goals of the other, and the second evades interaction with him.
  • 5. unidirectional countermeasures, those. one of the partners hinders the achievement of goals by others, and the second avoids interaction with the first participant.
  • 6. Contrasting interaction: one of the participants tries to assist the other, and the second resorts to a strategy of active opposition to the first (in such situations, such opposition may be masked in one form or another).
  • 7. compromising interaction, when both partners show separate elements of both assistance and opposition.

The main features of joint activities and subject propertiesSD are closely related. Among the main characteristics of the subject of joint activity, it is necessary to single out purposefulness, motivation, the level of integrity (integration), structuredness, consistency, organization (controllability), performance (productivity), spatial and temporal features of living conditions.

Purposefulness group subject of activity represents the desire for the main goal.

motivation as a property of a group subject of activity, it characterizes an active, interested and effective attitude (motivation) to joint activities.

Under integrity(or integration) of the collective subject of activity is understood as the internal unity of its constituent elements. Integrity is evaluated by a set of parameters:

  • - the density of functional connections between its members, the indicators of which are the frequency and intensity of contacts between them;
  • - the level of functional interconnectedness; the ratio of the number of jointly performed functions to their total number;
  • - the type of integrity of the collective subject, which is manifested in the nature of the dominant relationships between members of the team.

An important property of a group subject of activity is its structuredness, which means the clarity and rigor of the mutual distribution of functions, tasks, rights, duties and responsibilities between members of the team, the certainty of its structure. Empirical indicators of structuredness can be the dominant ways of distributing functions (mutual complementation, safety net, duplication, etc.), ways of taking responsibility for performing functions in a team (concentration, distribution, diffusion of responsibility), characteristics of business mutual influence, etc.

Consistency is a harmonious combination of group members, the mutual conditioning of their actions. The consistency parameter is primarily the type or nature of the coordination (ratio) of group members' actions, which can be assessed using the following indicators:

  • - the dominant way of resolving disagreements and contradictions;
  • - the leading "zone" for coordinating the actions of group members;
  • - the level of conflict;
  • - typical ways of behavior of its participants in conflict situations, etc.

organization generalized subject of activity means orderliness, composure, subordination to a certain order of joint activities, the ability to act exactly in accordance with a predetermined plan (plannedness).

An integral property of a collective subject of activity is its performance, characterizing the ability to achieve a positive outcome.

Observations of the process of joint activity and his own experimental studies allowed N. N. Obozov to build joint activity regulation model(Fig. 23).

Rice. 23.

The central block in this model is the block "Conditions of activity and interaction". The distinction between such concepts as "activity" and "interaction" is not accidental. They act together in joint activities and mutually condition each other. V. E. Smirnov in his work “Psychology of adolescence” noted: “For group members who perform some kind of joint action, there are always two sides: stimulation from the work itself and stimulation coming from others.”

In joint activities, N. N. Obozov identifies two aspects:

  • a) the actual subject activity;
  • b) a set of processes that establish various connections and dependencies between people in the process of this activity or communication.

This opinion confirms the fact of separation of the conditions of activity and interaction. J. Lingard identified two types of feedback: the actual feedback about individual activity and the social feedback due to the interaction between individuals.

Feedback is one of the most important components of the regulation of any biological and social system, and if without feedback Practical activities is unthinkable, then in the conditions of interaction of a larger number of people, the feedback system becomes even more complicated. In this regard, Kurt Back distinguishes two types of communication (which correspond to certain structures of the language):

  • a) aimed at relationships, i.e. interactions;
  • b) focused on actions and activities.

R. Bales distinguishes between the area of ​​problem solving and the area of ​​emotions in joint activity. The area of ​​emotions is characterized by the presence of such forms of speech and behavioral reactions, which are more focused not on the activity itself (problem solving), but on interaction (interpersonal relationships). These reactions have an emotional, subjective coloring, characterize the degree of satisfaction with joint activities. Another thing is the area of ​​problem solving: it is associated with the advancement of hypotheses, their discussion and decision-making. The choice of the solution method, in turn, is associated with certain emotional experiences of the participants in group activities.

The effectiveness of the group's activity depends on many factors, including the conditions in which it takes place. It can be a calm business environment, lack of pressure from outside, or, conversely, stressful conditions when the group is working with an emotional "anguish" in an extreme situation. Among the conditions affecting the effectiveness of SD, the following should be noted:

  • 1.Specificity and complexity of tasks. This is a non-group factor, it is set from the outside and determines the content of joint activities. The complexity of the task is determined not only by what mental processes and functions are involved in the activity (sensory-perceptual, mnemonic, logical), but also by how often the actions were performed and skills were developed - the norms of interaction with the tool and the object of labor.
  • 2. Time joint work or any other type of interaction, such as communication between friends, spouses, can be considered from various positions.

With the official organization of people's interaction, time is assessed as a factor of objective necessity for joint activities. The time of interaction in informal relations is determined by the internal needs of each of the participants in communication. The time of working together and living together is not only a condition for testing the strength of relationships, but, more importantly, it is a factor in the formation of personal, in particular characterological, characteristics of interacting people. As S. L. Rubinshtein pointed out on this occasion, with prolonged communication, the mutual influence of people on each other often leaves a significant imprint on their character, and in some cases there is a kind of exchange of characterological properties and mutual assimilation. As a result of a long life together, people sometimes acquire common features, become similar to each other.

3.The quantitative composition of the group in the conditions of official relations (for example, educational activities) is determined from the outside. The quantitative composition is of some importance for the regulation of the effectiveness of group activities. As the group grows, its efficiency increases, but only to a certain level: when a certain “critical value” is reached, the size of the group ceases to affect the effectiveness of its activities, and then, with its larger increase, the efficiency decreases (too large numbers lead to the fact that people begin to interfere with each other), noted B. F. Lomov. But at the same time, it is necessary to correlate the specifics of the group's activities, the complexity of the tasks being solved with the actual number.

The ratio of the number of members of the group and the effectiveness of its work has a curvilinear dependence. In the manifestation of this factor, one should distinguish between the threshold values ​​of the group size: lower threshold is the number of people who can handle common goal; upper threshold- is the number of people who effectively cope with the task, but which can be slightly reduced without visible damage.

4. Interconnection of group members is one of the main conditions affecting their interaction. At the same time, interaction should be understood as such a system of actions of participants, when the actions of one cause certain actions of other people. The degree of interconnectedness is determined by the nature of the interaction between individuals: formal or informal. Informal interpersonal relationships are not given, they are regulated by the members of the group. In a formal organization, interconnectedness is determined by instructions, orders, prescriptions and does not depend on the desire of people.

Little interconnectedness presents great opportunities for independent work. As the mutual connection strengthens, the possibilities of independent action decrease, but at the same time the role of group-wide achievements increases. Moreover, the increase in interconnectedness increases the importance of the leader.

J. Lingard tried to determine the levels of mutual dependence, taking into account the complexity and quality of interpersonal relationships:

  • a) the first level of interconnectedness is characterized by a change in behavior under the influence of the presence of other persons behaving like spectators, and is designated by scientists as a "public effect";
  • b) the second level - interconnectedness, in which behavior changes under the influence of other persons actively participating in a particular activity. Joint action in this case must be distinguished by the degree of interconnectedness: from the emotional and interested joint activity of other persons without direct assistance to mutual cooperation.
  • 5. functional structure groups can be differentiated into primary (given by the conditions and formal characteristics of the organization) and secondary (corresponding to the distribution of roles in the process of solving problems). For optimal regulation of the control system, a rational relationship between a given and arbitrary distribution is necessary functional duties. The arbitrary (secondary) distribution of functions is determined, on the one hand, by the system of tasks that the group solves, and on the other hand, by the individual-typical, personal and socio-psychological characteristics of the members of the group. In cohesive groups, the leader is more effective than in less cohesive ones. "Group cohesion" and "leadership effectiveness" are interdependent variables. A group can be cohesive only with an optimal distribution of functions between its members, so it is natural that the effectiveness of leadership will be greater; this quality of a cohesive group is a consequence of agreement within it.
  • 6. isolation groups from ordinary social environment(expeditions, crews of ships and spaceships) and her autonomy(“shortcut” to some external object, for example, any person who is not part of the group; a device regarded as an external element). The weak autonomy of the group is expressed in the conflict that closes between its members. Social isolation, perhaps more than physical, affects a person's well-being. But unlike individual isolation, the absence of the usual social circle is compensated by an increase in the level of interpersonal relations within the group itself, albeit to certain limits. The narrowing of the circle and the deepening of communication quickly exhaust the informative value of each of the members of the group, which ultimately leads to individual isolation.

The autonomy of the group acts as a consequence not only of physical conditions, but also of internal and external socio-psychological ones. This is expressed in the fact that a well-working group, included in interactions with other groups, sometimes shows aggressiveness towards members of other groups.

7. motive as a motive is the source or cause of an action. However, in the conditions of joint work of people in a group, the claims of one may not be consistent with the claims of another.

The nature of the motivation of each member of the group and the entire group as a whole differs in strength and direction. intrinsic motivation of each member of the group is determined primarily by the conditions for solving problems, which can strengthen or weaken it. The strength of motivation depends on the mutual influence of group members on each other. At a high level positive attitude to work, there is an increase in the motivation of each member and the entire group as a whole. The orientation of motivation is expressed through the orientation of the individual to personal success (to himself), collectivist (to the group) and business (to the task). Orientation to one's own or group results is directly dependent on the degree of interconnectedness between group members. With greater motivation, the motivation of group members for the overall effectiveness of joint activities increases, or a conflict arises in the group up to the refusal to solve the problem.

8. The system of additional factors, according to N. N. Obozov, it is diverse in structure and includes, on the one hand, the individual psychological characteristics of the members of the group, and on the other, their homogeneity-heterogeneity in various psychological characteristics.

In the first case, two intragroup factors are distinguished. First factor- the level of individual characteristics of group members - acts as an indicator of the capabilities that each participant in joint actions has separately (this can include neurodynamic, psychomotor, intellectual, socio-psychological characteristics of people).

Second factor- homogeneity-heterogeneity of the group (the degree of similarity between people in the group). For one type of joint activity, closeness, the similarity of group members in some respects, is important, for other types of work, contrast and differences are the conditions for the successful completion of group tasks. Of particular importance are the age and sex differences of people; their role in regulating interactions (communication, relationships) is extremely high.

The homogeneity-heterogeneity factor of a group has two levels.

  • 1. First level homogeneity-heterogeneity of the group (the degree of similarity-contrast of probable participants in the interaction) is the ratio of their individual (natural), personal and socio-psychological parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations, worldview positions). This level is involved in the regulation of the effectiveness of joint activities and interpersonal relations of people, but its regulatory function may not be recognized by the members of the group. This does not mean at all that partners do not see real similarities or differences between themselves; it's just so obvious that it's taken for granted.
  • 2. Second level homogeneity-heterogeneity of group members is the ratio (similarity-difference) of their opinions, assessments, attitudes towards themselves, partners, other people, the objective world. The second level includes two sublevels:
    • - primary(or initial) sublevel consists of initial data before interaction, ratio of opinions, assessments (about the world of objects and about their own kind) and attitudes (to the world of objects and towards their own kind);
    • - secondary the sublevel is the ratio (similarity-difference) of opinions, assessments and relationships, as a result of the interaction between group members. It is a consequence of the interaction of opinions, assessments and relationships of communicating partners; regulated by such mechanisms. social behavior like imitation, suggestion, conformity. The degree of positive variability of opinions, assessments, positions is one of the main indicators of group cohesion and solidarity. Due to variability, this sublevel is transformed. Variability depends not only on the initial ratio of the parameters of the primary sublevel, but also on the first level of heterogeneity of the group, i.e. from the ratio of individual, personal and socio-psychological characteristics of the members of the group. In turn, the change and acceptance of other opinions, assessments, attitudes are involved in the formation of value orientations, interests, i.e. there is a change in the first level of homogeneity-heterogeneity.

The initial, initial ratio of opinions, assessments and attitudes in the group characterizes the unity of views and expresses the similarity-difference of interests, value orientations and personal attitudes. Partners are not only aware of the similarity-difference in their opinions, assessments, relationships, but also feel its real significance for joint activities and interpersonal relationships.

All of the above allowed N. N. Obozov to conclude that a variety of systems of factors are involved in the regulation of the effectiveness of group activity:

  • a) non-group (physical and social);
  • b) intra-group (norms, interpersonal relationships, initial and resulting);
  • c) impersonal (homogeneity-heterogeneity according to individual psychological parameters);
  • d) intrapersonal (individual psychological characteristics of group members, their condition, initial opinions, assessments and attitudes).

The factor connecting all of the above is the factor of social significance of the joint activity of a group of people.

Under Article 1043 Civil Code Russian Federation accounting of the common property may be entrusted to one of the legal entities participating in the simple partnership agreement. When reflecting in accounting and financial statements operations related to participation in joint activities (simple partnership agreement), the partner organization is guided by paragraphs 13 - of this Regulation, and the partner conducting common affairs in accordance with the simple partnership agreement is guided by paragraphs 17 - of this Provisions.

13. Assets contributed to the account of a contribution under a joint activity agreement are included by the partner organization in the composition of financial investments at the cost at which they are reflected in the balance sheet as of the date the agreement enters into force.

14. When forming the financial result, each partner organization includes in the composition of other income or expenses the profit or loss on joint activities to be received or distributed among the partners.

15. The property to be received by each partner organization as a result of the division in accordance with Article 1050 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation upon termination of joint activities is reflected as the repayment of deposits accounted for as financial investments. If there is a difference between the value of the contribution accounted for as financial investments and the value of the assets received after the termination of the joint activity, it is included in other income or expenses when forming the financial result. Assets received by a partner organization after the termination of a joint activity are accepted for accounting in the valuation recorded in a separate balance sheet as of the date of the decision to terminate the joint activity.

(see text in previous edition)

According to the depreciable property accepted for accounting after the termination of the joint activity, depreciation is charged for the next due date useful life in accordance with the rules defined by the Accounting Regulation "Accounting for Fixed Assets" PBU 6/01, approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation of March 30, 2001 N 26n (registered with the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation on April 28, 2001, registration N 2689).

16. The financial statements of a partner organization shall be submitted in accordance with the procedure established for legal entities, taking into account the financial results obtained under a joint activity agreement. In the balance sheet of the partner organization, the contribution to the joint activity is reflected in the composition of financial investments, and in case of materiality, it is shown as a separate item. In the income statement, the profit or loss due to the partner organization according to the results of the section is included in other income or expenses when forming the financial result.

(see text in previous edition)

The explanatory notes to the balance sheet and income statement as part of the reporting segment disclosure of joint ventures by a partner entity show:

share of participation (contribution) in joint activities;

share in total contractual obligations;

share of jointly incurred costs;

share in jointly received income.

17. When organizing accounting, a partner conducting common business in accordance with a joint activity agreement ensures separate accounting of operations (on a separate balance sheet) for joint activities and operations related to the performance of its ordinary activities.

The indicators of a separate balance sheet are not included in the balance sheet of a partner conducting common business.

Reflection of business transactions under a joint activity agreement, including accounting for expenses and income, as well as calculation and accounting of financial results on a separate balance sheet, are carried out in accordance with the generally established procedure.

18. The property contributed by the participants of the agreement on joint activities as a contribution is accounted for by the partner who, in accordance with the agreement, is entrusted with the conduct of common affairs, separately (on a separate balance sheet).

The contributions made by the participants in joint activities are accounted for by the partner conducting common business on the account for recording the contributions of partners in the assessment provided for by the agreement.

In accounting, property acquired or created in the course of the implementation of a joint activity agreement is reflected in the amount of actual costs for its acquisition, manufacture, etc. Accounting for the acquisition or creation of new fixed assets, intangible assets and other investments in non-current assets is carried out in accordance with the generally established procedure.

Depreciation on depreciable property within the framework of a separate balance sheet is carried out in accordance with the generally established procedure, regardless of the actual period of their use and the previously used methods of depreciation before the conclusion of a joint activity agreement.

19. At the end of the reporting period, the resulting financial result - undistributed profit (uncovered loss) is distributed among the participants in the agreement on joint activities in the manner prescribed by the agreement. At the same time, within the framework of a separate balance sheet, as of the date of the decision on the distribution of retained earnings (uncovered loss), accounts payable to partners in the amount of their share of retained earnings due to them, or accounts receivable to partners in the amount of their share of uncovered loss due for repayment are reflected.

20. A partner conducting common affairs shall compile and submit to the parties to the agreement on joint activities, in the manner and within the time limits established by the agreement, the information they need for the formation of reporting, tax and other documentation. At the same time, the submission by a partner conducting common affairs of information included in the financial statements of partners is carried out within the time limits specified by the agreement, but no later than the deadlines established by Federal Law No. 129-FZ of November 21, 1996 "On Accounting" (Collection of Legislation Russian Federation, 1996, N 48, item 5369; 1998, N 30, item 3619; 2002, N 13, item 1179; 2003, N 1, item 2, 6; N 2, item 160; N 27 (Part I), Art. 2700).

21. The liquidation balance sheet is drawn up by a partner conducting common business on the date of termination of the agreement on joint activities. At the same time, the property due to each partner following the results of the division is accounted for as the repayment of his share of participation (contribution) in the joint activity.