The concept and types of management. Theoretical and legal foundations of management

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Content
Essence and functions of management
Main types of management
Managers

Literature

Essence and functions of management

Essence and functions of management. With growing scale social production, the deepening of the social division of labor in all its three forms - general, special and individual - increases the importance of the economic management system, the theoretical expression of which is the economic mechanism. From the point of view of subject-object relations, the economic management system is a consciously organized, purposeful and active influence of various management subjects on the process of development and functioning of the social mode of production, economic system, their individual links and elements.

The core of the management system in the economy is a targeted impact on the needs, interests and goals of individuals, groups of people, entire strata and social groups to achieve the goal. The main objects of management are social production as a whole ( general form), individual branches of the national economy, spheres of social reproduction, certain elements or subsystems of the economic system (property relations, productive forces, technical and economic relations - a special form), as well as individual enterprises, organizations, institutions (single form).

Main types of management

The main types of management (management) at the micro level are organizational, production, personnel, investment, innovation, financial, etc.

Management as a purposeful and active process includes such relatively independent, logically consistent elements: 1) collection, systematization and transmission of information; 2) development (justification) and decision-making; 3) transformation of the decision into various forms of commands (oral, written, order) and ensuring its implementation; 4) efficiency analysis decision and possible future adjustments. The results of these actions are the mutual displacement of production elements, the resolution of contradictions in the social mode of production as a whole or its individual subsystems, the coordination of economic interests, and the increase in the efficiency of social production or its individual links.

Management decision, management as a whole is implemented in practice through a set of its functions. The control function is a certain type of activity, during which an effective impact on the control object is carried out and the task is solved, the goal is achieved. The main functions of management from the point of view of the technological mode of production are planning, organization, coordination, labor stimulation and control. From the point of view of property relations, another function of management is the realization by the owners of the means of production and other elements of the system of productive forces (science, information) of their rights to various objects of property, their management goals. From these management functions follow such basic management functions as planning (including strategic), organization, motivation, leadership and control.

Of the five basic management functions, organization and coordination are the most complex. The essence of the organization is the formation of the structure of the control object, the ordering of all elements in the control system and the form of their relationship, as well as the provision of active control elements with the necessary rights and resources. The active elements include business managers, labor collectives, individual workers, as well as organizations subordinate to this management system. Coordination is the establishment and maintenance of links between the elements of the system. Organization and coordination unite the individual elements of the management system into a single whole. Thus, an organizational structure of management is created.

In the process of managing all objects, both at the level of social production, individual spheres or sectors of the national economy, and at the level of individual enterprises and organizations, it is necessary to clearly formulate the main goal of management. The definition of such a goal is the initial principle of the functioning and development of the management system. The concretization of this principle is the determination of the optimal means to achieve the goal.

An important management principle is the guarantee by various management entities of the fulfillment of their obligations, or the principle of responsibility. For non-fulfillment of such obligations, various sanctions are applied to certain management entities in order to fully compensate for the losses incurred by those entities that have suffered losses due to violation of obligations. Therefore, it is necessary to clearly define who is responsible to whom and for what, i.e. to personify the subjects of management. In particular, in the former USSR, the highest authorities did not bear any responsibility to enterprises for erroneous or insufficiently substantiated decisions, which significantly reduced the effectiveness of management.

In the management process, the following social laws and patterns are organically combined, first of all: 1) technical and economic laws that reveal the essence of the technological mode of production, reflect the relationship between man and nature, man and technology, as well as the relationship between various elements technology and means of production. This type of laws, in turn, is divided into laws inherent in the development of productive forces, and laws inherent in technical and economic relations; 2) socio-economic laws that reflect the features of the development of production relations or economic property relations; 3) social laws, which reveal the essence of the relationship between the main classes, social strata and groups in the process of social production, in various spheres of social reproduction; 4) legal laws, which are specified in various legal acts and norms; 5) socio-psychological laws that reflect the biological and social aspects of a person's essence, his behavior in a team, society, as well as interpersonal, intergroup and other relations in the process of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material and spiritual goods. Thus, managerial knowledge is complex, universal, has a theoretical and applied, rational and intuitive nature.

In Western scientific literature, in particular in the works of American scientists T. Peters and R. Waterman, A complex approach to the management of an organization as a certain social system is revealed on the basis of the so-called "concept of seven "s" (7-s)", or the seven characteristics of the organization: strategy, structure, system ("hard characteristics"), staffing, leadership style, the sum of habits (“soft characteristics”), shared values (integrating characteristics). In their opinion, the object of management should be the human aspects of the organization, which are identified in personnel, style and habits, values of the organization. Moreover, it is these aspects and social values, the human potential of the organization that are now coming to the fore and grouping around them all the other characteristics of the organization.

The complexity of management increases significantly if not only the internal characteristics of the organization are taken into account, but also those affecting it. external factors(competitors, government actions, laws passed, etc.).

Forms and Methods scientific management enterprises. The elements of the organizational structure of management are various management units, whose activities are regulated by separate provisions. IN modern conditions distinguish six main organizational structures management: linear, functional, linear-functional, program-target, divisional, matrix.

With a linear structure, the management process is carried out through the relationship between the boss and subordinates, that is, in a hierarchy from top to bottom. So, in the American company Exxon and many others large corporations there are 11 to 14 levels of hierarchy. In this case, all orders come from one boss. For the head of each hierarchical level, an important problem is the selection of the optimal number of subordinates that can be effectively managed. The head of the department must make decisions on many problems of production and financial activities. The main disadvantage of a linear organizational structure is the too complicated procedure for making managerial decisions: orders come from top to bottom, and permission for each step of activity must be obtained from the bottom up through the entire hierarchy of leaders. Such decisions are made at lengthy meetings, after numerous agreements, under the conditions of collective responsibility for any actions. This management structure is very complex, it reacts slowly to internal and external changes (in particular, to changes in the market conditions), eliminates the innovative risk of the entrepreneur, since it lacks the autonomy of department heads in making many decisions. The linear form of management is associated with such negative features of managers as sycophancy, bureaucracy, corruption, intrigue, denunciations, etc.

With a functional management structure, management functions common to several departments are transferred to one body (department) or executor. This body performs functions that are homogeneous in content or technology of work and receives orders from several leaders. Thus, subordination in management is carried out by functions. The positive side of this functional structure management is to exclude duplication of activities of performers; each of these performers can achieve the most perfect forms of performance of individual functions. Disadvantages - lack of unity in obtaining orders, since they come from several leaders, deterioration in coordination of activities as the complexity of the production process increases and specialization deepens.

To a certain extent, these shortcomings can be eliminated with a linear-functional management structure, when management decisions are developed by highly qualified and experienced specialists, and orders are given according to the hierarchy of linear links.

At the heart of all three organizational management structures mentioned above is the principle of unity of command, according to which each subordinate can have only one boss. Let us preliminarily note that with a matrix management structure, a subordinate may have several bosses, each of whom is responsible for the implementation of various projects or for different kinds corporate activities.

In the program-target management structure, the heads of individual projects or departments are allocated, who give orders regarding the most effective use material, labor and financial resources to achieve specific production targets. Such goals may be the construction of a new plant or workshop, the reconstruction of an existing enterprise, the design and development of new equipment. The head of the enterprise receives the task from the top management and reports to him. He, in turn, submits to a whole staff of workers. Thus, entire units can perform targeted tasks, which makes it difficult to coordinate between them. To coordinate their activities, a single coordinating body is being created. Over time, such units can be transformed into internal firms, that is, relatively independent business units that have greater independence.

In the divisional management structure, the management process is combined according to the product (the parent company is responsible for the activities of the company in a given country) and the regional principle ( subsidiary combines branches in other countries). The main elements of this form of management are departments that are endowed with operational independence, enter into contractual relationship with each other and on the basis of profit, they are self-financing. Top management in this form of management makes strategic decisions that determine the development of the company in the long term (setting long-term goals, expanding the scale of production, modernizing enterprises, introducing new types of products into production, etc.). According to this principle, management is carried out in the powerful American corporation INM, and the program-target form of management is also used here.

Considering that the main modern form monopolistic associations in industry is a diversified concern, the divisional form is the most optimal organizational form of management. This is due to the fact that the branches and enterprises of the concern are endowed with operational and economic independence, work on the principles of cost accounting, and their leaders have the right to entrepreneurship, commercial and innovative risk, etc. At the same time, the divisional form of management makes it possible to rationally combine the independent tactics of divisions with the strategy throughout the company, as long-term strategic decisions are taken by the management, thus optimally coordinating centralized and decentralized management.

The matrix management structure combines linear, program-target and functional forms. Their choice depends on the type of production, the nature of technological operations, the goal. So, with a mass serial production the most adequate are linear and functional forms, if it is necessary to develop new technology - program-targeted organizational form management.

The choice of form of government also depends on historical traditions, organizational culture and values of a particular country. At the same time, within certain forms, various methods, leadership styles, means, etc. can be used. ), electronic "offices without papers and typists", etc.

At the Japanese automobile company Toyota, six managing directors report to senior management. They, in turn, report to eight managing directors and seventeen directors who manage divisions. The entire management process is focused on achieving two major goals: improving product quality and reducing production costs. It is provided by the implementation of: engineering support functions (planning and product development); production function (preparation for production and production itself); commercial function (sales of products and supply of raw materials and components). All these functions of the management process are considered as auxiliary.

Most of the company's executives are responsible for a separate division, but they perform several functions. However, not all heads of departments perform such functions. Each of the six Managing Directors is responsible for coordinating the activities of the divisions. The president of the firm is responsible for the activities of the meeting of directors on management issues and the management board. The latter, in turn, manages the work of six functional meetings and meetings of divisions. The functional meeting is the only official unit in the form of functional management. These meetings are attended by all managers and heads of departments, including managing directors.

Each of them takes part in those meetings that relate to the activities of his subordinate units. The functional meeting has about 10 members.

The most important in the process of making managerial decisions are administrative meetings. They perform executive body who approves the decisions of the functional meetings. Toyota has six functional meetings, including a meeting on new products, on sales of new cars, on issues of cost, etc. Functional meetings on product quality issues are held once a month. They bring out the most important issues that are discussed in the "quality circles" that meet once or twice a week. The effectiveness of product quality management at Toyota is evidenced by the fact that at the company's enterprises, on average, there are more than 30 rationalization proposals, 95% of which are being implemented. For comparison, we note that in the United States, one industrial company accounted for only one rationalization proposal per employee.

The program-target management structure is used, in particular, in the American corporation Europian Consumer Products Company. It has two program groups. One of them deals with the study of changes in demand for the products that the company produces, that is, it is busy marketing activities, the second - by improving the quality of products and their range and the corresponding adjustment production activities companies. Program managers report to the board of directors. Since this corporation was previously built in the form of a linear-functional management structure, it has a certain combination of two forms of management. At the same time, the program groups included specialists who were previously employed in functional units. Program and functional unit managers have the same rights.

The main differences between the organization of senior managers in the US and Japan are that in the US, among many board members, there are managers who do not belong to this firm, while in Japan this phenomenon rarely happens; in the US, policy decisions are made by directors and implemented by executive managers, with a clear distinction between directors and executives. In Japan, the members of the board of directors are at the same time responsible executives, there is no distinction between them; in the USA, only individual members of the board of directors are responsible for a certain area, and in Japan, each member of such a board is responsible for the work of individual divisions of the company; in the USA, the members of the board of directors are equal, only the head is selected from the members of the board, in Japan there is a clear subordination between the members of the board of directors, in addition, the number of the board of directors is much larger.

In order for the management process to be effective, it is necessary to adhere to the following basic requirements: 1) consider a person as the main source of increasing labor productivity and production efficiency; 2) plan activities large companies, including the long-term need for personnel (including the training of young specialists, their promotion, a set of measures for external recruitment of workers, etc.). Such companies are compared with the state, with a planned economy; 3) provide subdivisions and employees of these subdivisions with a certain autonomy, which stimulates their entrepreneurial spirit; 4) constantly focus on the needs of consumers, which is achieved by rational marketing activities; 5) adhere to a simple form of management, have a small managerial staff; 6) to act energetically and quickly while concentrating the company's efforts on one or more lines of business; 7) to pursue a policy aimed at the formation of many leaders and innovators in the company, to stimulate their justified degree of risk; 8) organically combine the autonomy, freedom of individual departments, employees with rigid centralism, especially when it comes to the company's core values - quality standards, service, etc.

Orientation to the person, "human capital" provides, first of all, the need for constant involvement of workers at all levels in the development and adoption of managerial decisions. To do this, it is necessary to increase investment in "human capital" in the process of training and retraining of workers, the formation of their economic thinking, technical and technological culture. Managers play a leading role in this.

The manager must be knowledgeable in matters of culture, ethics, morality, mental and physical health of the individual, its improvement. He must have developed philosophical thinking, the ability to analyze and evaluate various theories (especially on the organization of production and labor), the results of scientific research.

Therefore, the main requirements for the work of a leader-manager in modern conditions include: more accountability, more leadership, more attention to teamwork, closer contact with people, greater conditionality of power, more individuality, more dedication, a combination of intelligence and operational qualities. Leaders and managers who need to inspire employees themselves should feel uplifted, constantly strengthen their connection with the ideas and energy of the people who surround them, pay more attention to their moral and spiritual qualities.

Looking at a person only as a tool, an instrument, an object that can be manipulated, is a sign of totalitarian thinking. Problems of spirituality, faith, religion, their psychological aspects play an ever-increasing role in modern society. The manager must have modern knowledge in the field of research of human behavior, the ability to anticipate the attitude of people towards themselves and reasonably respond to it. Therefore, in the composition personnel service the enterprise (firm, company) includes sociologists, psychologists, specialists in labor relations.

According to American economist P. Drucker, managers should make people capable of common actions, increase the effectiveness of their efforts and at the same time level out their common shortcomings and weaknesses. In his opinion, in any organization, less than 15% of its elements (employees, order markets, etc.) give 80-50% of the total results, and all other elements only consume, not produce. Therefore, the manager must eliminate the mass extra work and focus on improving the performance of a small core.

In activity modern company an important role is played by the system of its internal values, which the manager must skillfully instill in subordinates, develop and maintain the desire to achieve a collective goal. The main principles of the manager's activity in this area are the ability, firstly, to single out values from the general and increasingly growing flow of "information; secondly, to determine the hierarchy of values unbiasedly (which contributes to conflict resolution); thirdly, to proceed from the fact that all values deserve attention, even if not all of them can be taken into account in a certain situation; fourthly, to be restrained, not to humiliate an opponent; fifthly, to maximize the employee's awareness of his own "I" in the world around him (which forms individuality); sixth, to assist employees in achieving their goals within the goals and values of the company, based on the principle of priority of the interests of a particular person, and not the entire organization.

The number of values is directly proportional to the level of complexity of the organization. Values must be constantly refined in accordance with the changing social situation. Such clarification is carried out within the main groups of values: technological (the issue of choosing methods for improving production, improving product quality), economic (profit distribution), social, political, moral, psychological, national, etc.

In modern conditions, management activities must take into account some new points.

First, it is necessary to significantly limit or even abandon in certain industries the indicator of labor productivity, calculated as the amount of products manufactured by one worker or per unit of working time. This is due to the fact that the growth of labor productivity of one employee (or at one site), regardless of the labor productivity of other workers, of the entire team, causes an increase in intra-production stocks, volumes of unfinished construction, deterioration in product quality, and curbing the rationalization activities of workers. In other words, by means of such cost savings (provided that direct labor costs in most industries range from 2 to 10% of the cost of production), it is possible to increase other production costs, and therefore reduce the overall efficiency industrial production. Therefore, one should strive to increase the productivity of all employees of the enterprise.

Secondly, the introduction of new technology only in certain areas of production can lead to an increase in intra-factory stocks or unfinished construction. Therefore, it is advisable to comprehensively introduce new technology, increase the level of use of all types of production resources, taking into account their interchangeability.

Thirdly, it is necessary to use such qualitatively new indicators in the work of the enterprise as the number of rationalization proposals per employee, the percentage of their implementation. These indicators characterize the degree of involvement of workers and employees in the management of production.

Fourthly, it is necessary to introduce new forms of labor stimulation. Since individual incentives to increase production standards are becoming less and less effective, collective forms of labor incentives should be used, taking into account the level of individual wages. An important factor in the growth of production efficiency is the introduction of a brigade form of organization and stimulation of labor.

In general, in the process of enterprise management, in the formation of stable and effective incentives to work in the developed countries of the world, economic democracy is becoming increasingly important, which is a process of gradual democratization of property (capital), involving employees in the management of production and property, providing them with a wide production autonomy (primarily in the form of autonomous teams), versatile information about the state of affairs in the company. economic form the implementation of these processes are the ownership of shares and the appropriation of part of the profit in the form of dividends, the control of employees, autonomous teams over product quality, participation in planning and control over the production and distribution of profits, over the process of training and retraining highly qualified workers and their promotion. One of the prerequisites good relationship managers with subordinates is to timely inform employees about the quality of their work, indicate how to improve it, give fair incentives, explain the need for changes, discover hidden talents in subordinates, etc.

The use of such forms helps to reduce staff turnover. In the United States, for example, 20 million workers leave their jobs every year, with about 10 million doing so voluntarily. Many of them value the content of the job, the atmosphere in the corporation or organization more than the amount of wages. Under these conditions, the problems of management, the establishment of favorable interpersonal and intergroup relations in the team, come to the fore. Given this, many modern managers do not even use the concepts of "employees", "cadres", "personnel", replacing them with the word "people".

An important stimulating role is played by the payment of bonuses, the size of which averages up to 10% of all payments to employees throughout the year, and in some companies reaches 25% of the annual salary. Such payments are often made in the form of shares. A significant role in the system of labor incentives belongs to such a form as participation in profits, involving workers in the management process. In the brigade form of labor organization, the responsibility of each member of the brigade for the actions of all other members is often practiced. In order to create a better atmosphere in the team, many companies pay certain amounts to each employee on their birthday or on holidays (usually up to $ 100), introduce a third day off in the summer (extending the working day on another four working days), level modern requirements organize workplace, office premises, when organizing production, use the principle of separating all operations in the form of creating a small business within a corporation, invite an employee and his family at the expense of the company to dinner at an expensive restaurant or on a weekend in a suburban hotel, give preference to the training and retraining of their own personnel to hiring appropriate outside specialists, etc.

In Japan, in addition to a wide program of cultural and social events, firms are introducing new progressive pension systems.

Responsible posts are entrusted, as a rule, to young managers, and older, experienced managers are appointed as consultants for them, coordinators of individual projects. During the restructuring of the management system in Japan, the system of headquarters committees and decentralized offices was widely used. At the same time, they were given the right to make operational decisions (delegation of competence), and the top administration focused on solving strategic issues of leadership.

The main method of control is the system of reporting on the budget and accrual of standard costs.

In case of deviations of the actual results from the planned production costs or budget indicators, reports are promptly sent to certain departments for appropriate action. In addition, special centers are being created at different sites of firms, which should monitor compliance with the standards.

Fifth, it is necessary to achieve savings in material and energy resources and overhead costs. An important indicator of the savings in such costs is the reduction in the level of intra-factory stocks, volumes of unfinished construction and material and energy costs.

Sixth, before introducing new equipment and technology, it is necessary to restructure the forms and methods of organizing production. In this regard, it is not advisable to simultaneously introduce new equipment and new management methods.

Moreover, under imperfect control new technology causes a decrease in production efficiency.

Seventh, it should be taken into account that the achievements of the leading Japanese firms are based primarily on the advantages in management (management style, strategy and tactics of the management process), on the introduction of more efficient forms of organization and stimulation of labor.

Managers

Managers (English manager - manager) - a specific social group of society, consisting of professional managers (directors of companies and firms, heads of individual divisions of enterprises, etc.). The appearance of managers is due to the deepening of the social division of labor, the growth of the scale of enterprises, and the complication of the production and management process. A more concrete reason for their appearance is the process of separation of capital-property from capital-function. The development of this process leads to the fact that the capitalist, being physically unable to carry out competent management of all links in the production and sale of products, hires professional managers. In the context of increasing depersonalization of property due to the evolution of capitalist property from individual to collective forms, managers are hired by shareholders, primarily owners of a significant number of shares.

Depending on the scale of enterprises, top, middle and lower managers are distinguished. In the US, in giant corporations, top managers are 3-4 persons (president, 2-3 vice-presidents of the company). In this country, out of 12.5 million managers, there are about 10 thousand top managers. If the company is owned individual, then the most important decisions are made by the capitalist himself (for example, on the hiring or dismissal of top managers), and top managers solve other important problems. Therefore, along with certain powers, a part of corporate property also passes to top managers in three main forms: a significant number of shares in a corporation (worth from 1 million to 4 million each); high wages(in the early 1990s, it exceeded $1 million a year); personal expensive cars, yachts, precious carpets and even art galleries. Thus, in terms of their legal status, income, and way of life, top managers merge with the monopoly bourgeoisie. At the same time, they must have a deep knowledge of all internal communications within corporations, maintain contacts with officials of the state apparatus. The transformation of the power of top managers or its significant levers into property refutes the main thesis of the concept of the "revolution of managers" about the separation of power from property, in particular, the absence of property from top managers.

Such managers should not be identified with middle managers (heads of departments, for example, workshops), who have much less power in the enterprise and who, in terms of income, approach the middle bourgeoisie. Middle managers must have in-depth professional knowledge of all parts of the production process of their divisions, a general understanding of other divisions, select personnel for their division, etc.

The largest group professional managers- These are lower-level managers: foremen, foremen, etc. Their standard of living is approaching the level of hired workers of higher and average qualifications. except profound knowledge production process on their site, they must be able to establish contacts (social, psychological, professional) with all employees of the unit. Senior managers and, to a large extent, middle managers are usually trained for high pay in special schools based on large universities, and lower managers, as a rule, in training centers with large corporations.

In the course of denationalization and privatization in Ukraine and other CIS countries, the gap between the wages of senior management and ordinary employees is growing (in Russia, for example, the difference reaches a hundredfold). This requires strengthening the legislative regulation of activities joint-stock companies, the creation of an institution for licensing enterprise managers (on the basis of passing a special exam) with the right to revoke a license, subject to the activities of managers in the interests of personal enrichment to the detriment of the labor collective and the state, the inclusion of representatives of the labor collective in the management body at the enterprise (for example, in the directorate) , strict tax control over income individuals, providing equal benefits to those enterprises where the solutions to labor, management and proprietary contradictions are carried out without their development into a conflict phase, etc.

management decision manager

Literature

1. Kravchenko L.I. Analysis economic activity enterprises: Proc. for universities. - 4th ed., revised. and additional - Mn.: Vysh. Shk., 2002. - 415 p.

2. Srebnik B.V. Enterprise Economics: Proc. for universities on special "Finance and Credit". - 2nd ed., Revised. and additional - M .: Vyssh. school, 2000.-231s.

3. Economics of the enterprise: Textbook for bargaining. Universities / B.A. Solovyov, L.A. Alkevich, V.I., Androsov et al.; Ruk. ed. Collective B.A., Solovyov. - M.: Economics, 2000. - 414 p.

4. Economics of the enterprise: Textbook for universities / A.I. Grebnev, Yu.K. Bazhenov, O.A. Gabrielyan and others, Ruk. ed. count A.I. Grebnev. - M.: Republican unitary enterprise "Publishing house "Economics". 2002. - 238 p.

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Types of management

There are three types of management: technical, biological, social:

1) technical - control of objects based on technical rules (physical, mathematical), for example, control of machine tools, complex machines, etc.;
2) biological - management of biological processes, taking into account the laws of nature, the laws of development of certain organisms (poultry farming, breeding, animal husbandry, etc.);
3) social - management of people. In this case, both groups of people (work collective, students, etc.) and individuals can act as the object of control. The most complex in its structure is government, which in a broad sense is an association of groups of people (labor collectives, public associations, nations, etc.). It is social management that is the main component in the content of management as a whole. The features of social management are:
- a) an object is always a person or a group of people;
- b) relations arising in the course of social management are of an organized, legal nature;
- c) social management has a power-volitional character, i.e., it is carried out on the basis of the priority of the will of the subjects of management, securing special rights for them;
- d) a special subject of management - authorities or other authorized person.

Control types:

state;

collective - regulation at the level of the team;

family.

Public administration is a type of social administration, the functioning of which is associated with the formation of a special branch of law - administrative law. The main area of application of the norms of administrative law is precisely public administration.

Public administration is the organizing influence of the entire state apparatus on an extremely wide range of social relations in all ways available to the state.

There are also subspecies of social management:

family social - carried out within the family;

public social - leadership of individual organized groups of people (political parties, religious organizations, etc.);

municipal - management at the local level;

state social.

The analysis of activity management involves the classification of one hundred main types and the clarification of their functional specifics. Together, five criteria can be distinguished here: evolutionary forms; time of action; the nature of the connection; ordering forms; Finally, autoreflection.

Main types of activity management

When considering the types of management, first of all, five should be distinguished evolutionary types of management – mechanical, physical, chemical, biological and social. Their most significant difference is undoubtedly connected with the difference in the basic evolutionary forms of the motion of matter. Since management is an indispensable element of any activity, it must have gone through all the same basic stages in the process of evolution as activity. And therefore it is impossible to agree with the statement that there are only two types of evolutionary control - biological and social. In this case, it must be admitted that at the inorganic level, matter had and still has an uncontrollable character.

Each level of development of matter has its own specific type of control. It is now becoming more and more obvious that evolutionary process The complication of the organization of matter depends primarily on the complication of the types of control. More complex and developed types of control determine more complex and more developed forms of existence of matter. And in order for matter to be able to rise to a new step in its development, it must develop new and more perfect species management.

By the time of action, management, as well as activities in general, is divided into actual and accumulative.

Actual management is usually carried out according to new programs that are developed in the course of actual activities. In contrast, accumulative management is a set of programs that are preserved by an object or a kind of objects from previously implemented management processes.

By the nature of the connection, a special place among management processes is occupied by control with direct (open) and control with feedback (closed) connection.

A direct, or open, connection is characterized by the fact that some influence carries out certain changes in the perceiving object, and this interaction is interrupted at this point. The result formed in this activity, its features and development trends do not have any influence on the further course of the process. The activity of the interacting object depends mainly on the impact and is in no way correlated with the result. The control in this case also has an open-loop character. Having developed under the influence of external influence a program for changing the form (organization) of the perceiving object, it exhausts its function.

Otherwise, the matter is in conditions of a closed connection between objects. Here the result of the activity most directly affects the continuation of this activity. Taking into account the result, a new management program of the influencing object is developed, which leads to new transformations of the perceiving object. For example, characterizing the activity of animals and cybernetic machines, II. Wiener writes: “As in the animal, so in the machine, the execution of orders has as its goal the impact on the external world. In both cases, their implemented impact on the outside world, not just supposed the action returns to the central regulatory apparatus ". The interaction here acquires a closed loop. According to N. Wiener, feedback is "a property that allows you to regulate future behavior by the past execution of orders" .

Sometimes feedback is considered as a special form or method of management. N. Wiener also adhered to this point of view, who believed that "feedback is a method of managing a system by including in it the results of its previous performance of its tasks" . In reality, feedback is not a "management method", but a special form of interaction between objects. The information obtained in this process may or may not be used in management. Usually, the information received through feedback is only partially used to develop management programs.

Many researchers pay attention to this feature. So, describing information processes flowing in the human brain, A. G. Spirkin writes: “The total amount of information that comes from the outside world into the human brain through his senses is expressed in the number of 100 thousand units (bits) per second. But only a small part of this information avalanche becomes a fact of consciousness. The amount of information that is subjected to conscious processing, according to different authors, ranges from 25 to 100 bits per second. A careful selection of information takes place in the brain. Even if we start from the maximum number of bits, it turns out that only a thousandth of the perceived information reaches to consciousness." Therefore, it is impossible to identify feedback as a special form of communication between objects, and feedback control as a special form of programming the transformations of these objects.

Quite often, feedbacks are considered only as a property of biological and social matter. However, now a growing number of natural scientists are inclined to admit that they take place not only on the upper, but even on the lower floors of inorganic matter. For example, the prominent Soviet biologist Academician V. A. Engelgardt believes that feedbacks undoubtedly occur in planetary and galactic systems. But unlike biological ones, in these systems they are "many times less pronounced" .

Recently, experimental confirmation of the occurrence of feedbacks at the inorganic level has been obtained. Natural scientists discovered a law that regulates the development of individual metabolic processes.

Om has so far appeared under various names: "end product inhibition", "retroinhibition", or "allosteric inhibition". Its essence lies in the fact that some chain chemical reactions functions as a closed process because it is controlled by the end result.

In publications devoted to the analysis of management problems, feedback is sometimes characterized as the most important principle of only self-government processes (self-regulation, self-organization). By feedback like specific form The interaction of objects is a prerequisite not only for self-government, but also for management (regulation of the organization). The difference lies in the fact that in self-management it is used for internal regulation of the activity of an integral object (system), and in management it is used to effect the impact of one object on another.

Does feedback always accompany management processes? Obviously not. Feedback is the only basis complex processes management. Most of the management processes in the inorganic world proceed without feedback. Equally, one cannot consider feedback as an obligatory prerequisite for biological and social forms of control. In animals and humans, as a result of repeated repetition of the same actions in phylogenesis and ontogenesis, various kinds of managerial automatisms are developed, which under normal conditions do not require feedback.

In addition, in society, under the influence of various factors, it is not always possible to form a feedback mechanism or its formation is carried out out of time. This is especially evident in the examples of the functioning of our multi-tier structure for managing the national economy (for example, many ministries still use a five-tier structure). In social processes, quite often the formation of feedback is late, lags behind the needs of the activity, or this connection turns out to be of poor quality. This leads to the fact that management loses its conscious (planned) character, the formed goals of activity cease to correspond to reality, i.e. it becomes spontaneous.

According to the forms of streamlining management processes, specific management models are coordination, subordination and re-ordination. coordination(lat. coordination- location) Such an ordering is called both on the intrasubject and intersubject levels, in which the sides, parts and elements of one and the same object or the interaction of several objects are characterized by identity, equal size. Their influence on each other does not accept unilateral dependence and subordination. The balance between them is maintained by equal opportunities and equal influences. The activities of each of them are ordered in accordance with the activities of others.

For example, the relationship between different subjects in terms of management can be characterized as a relationship of coordination. All of them are located one next to the other or one after the other, but in such a way that no one is nominated for the role of the leading principle or leader. Management in the form of coordination is characteristic of identical entities, which under no circumstances can take precedence over one another. " Coordination - according to V. G. Afanasiev, - expresses the spatial ordering of the components of the system, horizontal ordering. Here we are talking about the interaction of components of the same level of organization.

In contrast to this subordination(lat. subordinate- subordination) called the second model of ordering, in which one of the elements of an object or one of the interacting objects plays the role of the leading, determining principle in the activity of all the others. Instead of juxtaposition, subordination operates here. Some elements in the composition of an integral object or a separate object in the composition of interaction take precedence over others and subordinate them to themselves. This character is inherent in management processes in interaction. V. G. Afanasiev notes: "Subordination... there is a vertical ordering, subordination and subordination of components. Here we are talking about the interaction of components of different levels.

What is the relationship between the concepts of "subordination" and "hierarchy"? In the main, the concepts of "subordination" and "hierarchy" are synonymous. This is the Latin and Greek names for such a form of government as subordination. But, as a rule, the concept of "hierarchy" is used when it comes to complex forms of subordination. If in any activity the subordinate dependence manifests itself multilaterally or on several levels of management, then in this case they usually speak of a hierarchy, i.e. the arrangement of systems or complex elements of a particular system in order from highest to lowest. In comparison with subordination, hierarchy is a more voluminous and developed form of management. It arranges along the line of subordination not just integrity, but systems in which control of one order turns out to be dependent on control of the second order, control of the second order - on control of the third order, and so on. to the top of the pyramid or highest point this system.

The subordination nature of management between subjects has long remained outside the field of view of researchers. The most important features of subordination as a model for managing the activities of objects are the following: 1) under the conditions of these connections, some objects have a guiding effect on others, as a result of which the latter begin to perform functions that were not characteristic of them before; 2) a significant change in the functions of dependent subjects can lead to a change in their overall characteristics and even qualities in general; 3) new functions and new qualities of objects create the prerequisites for the emergence of new subordinate dependencies, which are even more complex. Therefore, subordination cannot be understood as a simple mechanical structuring. In the latter case, attention is usually drawn only to the external side and the internal side, the functional one, is left without analysis, and yet it is precisely this side that is of particular importance.

Noting the determining influence of the higher levels of subordination in relation to the lower ones, in no case should this dependence be absolutized, because any interaction, as already mentioned, excludes absolutely primary and absolutely secondary. In any subordination, not only the highest level influences the lowest, but the reverse process also takes place, due to which the lowest level also influences the highest, and it is very important to study the features of this influence. Subordination dependence should not be understood unilaterally, it is always a two-sided process. The highest is only because the highest is that there is a lower. It is the lower that makes the higher possible. Without the lower, no higher is possible. And besides, the division into lower and higher is always very conditional, the boundary between them is mobile and unstable. The specificity of biological and especially social subordinations is manifested in the fact that here, unlike inorganic subordinations, the function of control is carried out to a greater extent and in a more expanded form on both sides. Not only does the higher control the lower, but, conversely, the lower is able to control the higher.

By the way, the command-administrative hierarchy that developed in our country in the past suffered from just a vicious one-sidedness, in which control was exercised only from top to bottom. Any attempts of the lower floors of the administrative pyramid to exercise control over the activities of the upper floors were suppressed, and are still being suppressed quite decisively and harshly. This, apparently, manifests itself social entity bureaucracy. In the process of reforming, we need to create such governance mechanisms, democracy, in which the governed would have a real opportunity to comprehensively control the work of the managers.

It should be noted that in the block with coordination and subordination, it is advisable to mention such a management model as coordination (lat. reordination- subordination). Reordination is usually called the third ordering model, in which the legal or organizational subordination of one community to another or one side of parts and elements of any community to others is carried out, both horizontally and vertically.

Little is known about reordination in science. At the same time, it is a constant companion not only of coordination, but also of subordination. For example, in Russia, at present, in the system of state administration, all power ministries are not subordinated to the president, while earlier they were directly subordinate to the chairman of the government. Similarly, the representations of the series federal ministries and departments in the subjects of the Federation are now reassigned to the heads of the subjects of the Federation. Under the influence of actual factors, such resubmissions are carried out constantly. And this practice is typical not only for public administration, but also for all other types of social administration.

Coordination, subordination and reordination are widespread in social reality. It is these management models that most often underlie various systems government controlled. It can be noted that they are equally capable of imparting stability and durability to systems. All attempts to exaggerate the role and importance of subordinate dependencies in the process social activities do not look convincing. Coordinating and reordering systems also differ high level reliability and long lifetime.

Finally, according to the nature of autoreflection, it is necessary to distinguish as an independent and such type of management as "self-government", or "self-regulation", or "self-organization". At present, different points of view about this species are expressed in the literature, but their essence boils down to the fact that these three concepts, firstly, must be distinguished from each other, since they characterize different processes, and Secondly, they must be distinguished from the concepts of "management", "regulation" and "organization". At the same time, some authors believe that in society, those processes that are associated with conscious ordering should be called management, and those that are formed spontaneously should be called regulation. Other authors consider regulation as a special function of management.

Here, first of all, it should be pointed out that the concepts "manage", "regulate" and "organize" are, as you know, synonyms: Russian, Latin and French names for the same process. Their synonymous character is freely visible even at the ordinary level. It follows from this that all attempts to establish any differences between the concepts of "self-government", "self-regulation" and "self-organization" also have no basis, since they are all multilingual synonyms.

As far as management and self-government are concerned, there is indeed a quite obvious difference between them. It is expressed in the fact that management is carried out "as if from the outside", when one object affects another and in a certain way streamlines its activity.

In contrast, self-government manifests itself as a process that is carried out not between separate entities, but within them. The Ministry, for example, not only manages subordinate enterprises, but also carries out internal ordering of its activities; the government of the subject of the Federation, in order to more successfully manage the national economy in the territory entrusted to it, must constantly improve its activities. The specificity of self-management lies in the fact that it is always associated with the internal problems of an integral object or system, directed at this object or system itself. Hence the prefix "samo" or "auto" (gr. autos- myself). There is no other meaning in this concept.

At the same time, apparently, one should always remember that the line between management and self-government is very relative. Everything depends on the starting point, i.e. from what we take as integrity. In fact, any separately existing object performs the functions of both management (in interaction with other objects) and self-government (in the interaction of its constituent parties, parts and elements).

So, activity, whatever it may be, cannot be unmanaged, i.e. it necessarily includes management. In the same case, if management is considered in itself, as something independent, it already acts as a special type of activity. This is the activity of management, or management activity. For example, with the emergence of the nervous system in animals, which began to perform the function of managing their vital activity, a special form of activity appeared - nervous activity, and in higher animals - higher nervous activity (VNV). On the social level- with the advent of classes, the state arises as a political form of governing society, with the complication economic activity in the era of capitalism develops economic management etc.

Kerimova T. V. Social progress and management. M., 1980. S. 66.
Control social processes in a socialist society. M., 1983. S. 79.

State and non-state administration. Distinctive features.

Control means to lead something or someone. It is carried out in organized systems of any nature in order to ensure the proper organization of the system and the necessary mode of its functioning, and, ultimately, the achievement of the tasks facing the system. Management is carried out in technical, biological and social systems.

Despite many fundamental differences in technical, biological and social systems, the control mechanism for these systems is the same and is associated with a certain impact. control subject (management subject) to a managed object (management object). Management will be real only when the object obeys the subject (either voluntarily or forcibly).

The most difficult type of management is the management of social systems.

Under social management (management of social systems) is understood as the impact on the community of people in order to streamline society, its improvement and development, and the achievement of the tasks facing people. The objective need for social management is due to the social nature of people's existence: their work, other relationships, communication, interaction.

SIGNS OF SOCIAL MANAGEMENT

1. social management always necessary when joint activities of people, to ensure its coordination and regulation, consistency of individual actions.

2. Human actions are conscious. And an essential sign of social control is the impact on the will. Hence the object of social control is behavior participants in the collective activity of people, the relationship between them.

3. Management is possible both vertically and horizontally.

The process of social management consists of a number of stages, which are: formulating goals and setting management objectives; development and adoption of management decisions; organization of the execution of this decision; control over the implementation of management decisions.

Social management is subdivided into public administration And non-state administration .

Non-state administration is carried out by local self-government bodies, the administration of non-governmental organizations and public associations of citizens.

The administrative law course focuses on public administration.

Under public administration in the broad sense of the word refers to the management of the affairs of the state, all its bodies to achieve the goals facing the state.

The subjects of state administration are state authorities, other state bodies, officials vested with government powers. However, experience shows that it is impossible to effectively govern the state without including local self-government bodies in the management process, which, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, are not included in the system of state authorities.

General concept management. Types of management, their features.

Management is a purposeful and constant process of influence of the subject of management on the object of management, in order to create an efficiently functioning system based on information links and relations.

Management is goal-setting, i.e. creative, thoughtful, organizing and regulating the impact of people on their own social life, which can be carried out both directly and through specially created bodies and structures. The management process is a complex dynamic system that is inextricably linked with information and has feedback.

It should be noted that the essence of management has remained unchanged for many decades. Defining the concept of "management", the classic of management A. Fayol gives the following six functions (operations):

1) technical operations;

2) commercial transactions;

3) financial transactions;

4) insurance operations;

5) accounting operations;

6) administrative operations.

Any management process is characterized by the following characteristic features:

1) the need to create and operate a complete system;

2) purposeful impact on the system, the result of which is the achievement of orderliness of relations and connections capable of fulfilling the tasks set;

3) the presence of the subject and object of management as direct participants in management;

4) information as the main link between management participants;

5) the presence of a hierarchy in the management structure (elements, subsystems, industries, areas);

6) use various forms subordination of the control object to the control subject, within the framework of which various techniques, forms, methods, methods and means of control are used.

Traditionally, the following types of management are distinguished: 1) mechanical, technical management (management of equipment, machines, technological processes); 2) biological management (management of vital processes of living organisms); 3) social management (management of social processes, people and organizations). Each of these types of management is distinguished by its purpose, qualitative originality, specific features, intensity of management functions and operations performed.

Social management as an attribute public life It is expressed in signs predetermined by the general features inherent in management as a scientific category, as well as the peculiarities of the organization of social life. The most important are the following ones. Firstly, social management exists only where the joint activity of people is manifested. By itself, this kind of activity (industrial or otherwise) is not yet able to provide the necessary interaction of its participants. Management organizes people specifically for joint activities into certain teams and organizationally draws them up. Secondly, social management, with its main purpose, has an ordering effect on the participants in joint activities, giving organization to the interaction of people. This ensures the consistency of individual actions, and also performs common functions from its nature (for example, planning, coordination, control, etc.). Thirdly, social management has as the main object of influence the behavior (actions) of participants in joint activities, their relationships. These are categories of a conscious-volitional character, in which the guidance of people's behavior is mediated. Fourthly, social management, acting as a regulator of people's behavior, achieves this goal within the framework of social relations, primarily between the subject and the object in connection with practical implementation functions of social management. Fifthly, social management is based on a certain subordination of the wills of people - participants in managerial relations, since their relations have a conscious-volitional mediation. Hence the power of social control. At sixth. social management needs a special mechanism for its implementation, which is personified by the subjects of management. In the role of those are a certain group of people, organizationally formalized in the form of appropriate governing bodies (public or state), or individual persons authorized to do so. Their activity, which has a specific purpose and special forms of expression, is managerial. Management understood in the social sense. diverse. In the broadest sense, it can be understood as a mechanism for organizing social relations. In a similar sense, we can say that its tasks and functions are practically performed by all state bodies, regardless of their specific purpose, as well as public associations. An element of the social management system is also local government. The object of control here is the whole society as a whole, all the variants of social relations developing in it. Social management also has a special meaning. In this variant, it is usually characterized as public administration, which is understood as a specific type state activities, different from its other manifestations (for example, legislative, judicial, prosecutorial activities), as well as from management activities public associations and other non-state formations.

The concept and types of management. Theoretical and legal foundations of management

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