Analysis and evaluation of the results of commercial activities. The effectiveness and results of the commercial activities of the enterprise What is the result of the activities of a commercial organization

The defining goal of a commercial bank is to obtain maximum profit, subject to its stable position and long-term operation in the market, being the final financial result, the amount of profit or loss received by the bank reflects the results of all types of its activities, all its active and passive operations.
Not only the bank itself is interested in increasing profits, but also the state, shareholders and shareholders, bank depositors, partners and customers, and bank personnel. For the bank itself, profit growth creates opportunities for expanding activities, increasing operations and services, increasing capital and reserves. For the state, the profit of a commercial bank is not only a source of taxes, but also, to a certain extent, a benchmark of the bank's reliability. The growth of the bank's profit for depositors gives an idea of ​​its reliability and efficiency. Profit deductions are one of the main parts of the remuneration of bank staff. The bank's profit is the source of dividend payments to shareholders and shareholders.
The amount of profit to a certain extent depends on the amount of income received and the amount of expenses incurred. The source of income for a commercial bank is all types of its activities (business), which are divided into main and secondary activities.
The main activity of the bank is the performance of banking operations and the provision of banking services clients. All other income-generating activities of the bank are secondary.
Income of commercial banks
The sources of income of commercial bikes are considered in accordance with the types of banking business and are grouped according to the form of receipt, the degree of stability and the procedure for recording income.
Banking income can be divided into stable and unstable. Stable income is income that is constant for the bank over a relatively long period of time (one to two years) and, therefore, can be planned for the future. In the bank's practice, stable income usually includes income from core activities.
Unstable include income from foreign exchange transactions, from transactions with securities in financial markets. In the practice of functioning of commercial banks, a prerequisite for their successful operation is the predominant increase in income
from stable sources with a small share of income from unstable sources.
The income of a commercial bank must necessarily cover its expenses, thereby forming a profit. At the same time, part of the bank's income is directed to the creation of reserves to cover existing risks. In addition, for the effective functioning of the bank, it is necessary that the bank not only has an amount of income that exceeds its expenses and covers risks, but also ensures the regularity of income.
The total income of a commercial bank according to the form of receipt is divided into three groups: interest income, commission fees, other types of income (fines, penalties, forfeits, income from bank operations for the sale of securities, discount income, etc.). In some cases, on individual credit transactions, the bank may receive both interest income and commissions.
The sum of all bank income in this reporting period is called gross income. Gross income includes the following groups of income: operating income, including interest income, commission income, income from operations in financial markets, etc.; income from side activities of the bank; others.
The largest share in the income structure of a commercial bank is occupied by income from core activities, i.e. operating income. Operating income includes interest and non-interest income.
The predominant part of the bank's income relates to interest income, namely, income from the paid placement of the bank's own funds and borrowed funds. These are income from providing loans to customers or from placing temporarily free funds in the central and commercial banks, interest income from investments in debt obligations, income from various operations: factoring, leasing, forfeiting, trust, accounting operations.
All types of listed interest income are formed by providing funds for temporary use and bring income in the form of interest on the invested amount. Over the past few years, interest income has accounted for more than 80% of the total income of the majority of Russian banks. Interest income on loans belongs to the group of stable sources of income for the bank.

Non-interest income consists of commission income, income from operations in financial markets, income from the revaluation of funds in foreign currency.
Fee and commission income includes income received from the provision of non-credit banking services to customers, commonly referred to as banking fees. The structure of the latter includes such services that are carried out on behalf of, on behalf of and at the expense of clients. Payment for these types of services is usually collected in the form of a commission. The commission rate is set depending on the amount of the deal or operation being made. Along with this, in accounting practice, commission income also includes income from those types of services, the fee for which is set in the form of a certain amount, and also in some cases in the form of amounts that compensate certain expenses incurred by the bank.
The list of services provided by modern commercial banks is constantly growing. Among the main banking services. that generate fee and commission income the following types services: settlement and cash services for legal entities and individuals, provision of bank guarantees, banking service currency contracts of clients, conversion operations. brokerage and depositary services, operations with plastic cards, leasing operations, farfeiting operations, trust management operations, factoring services, deposit storage services (provision of special safes, cells and premises for storing valuables and documents to clients), etc.
Most Russian commercial banks provide settlement, cash and other types of services to their clients free of charge, covering the related costs of these services at the expense of income from the placement of borrowed funds. Fee" for such services in the form of a commission is collected from customers only by a part of regional banks.
Most commercial banks are experiencing an increase in the share of fee income in the total volume of all income. This is due to the fact that fee and commission income is more stable than interest income. In this direction, there is also a decrease in the profitability of operations in domestic financial markets and a reduction in interest margin levels. The receipt of commission income is almost not associated with the risk of losing the value of invested assets (except for guarantee operations).
Incomes from secondary activities of banks make up a relatively small share in the structure of income of the commercial sector.
bank. This income group includes income from the provision of services of a “non-banking” nature: from the leasing of banking premises, machinery, equipment, software products and their possible sale, possible income from participation in the activities of enterprises and organizations, as well as income from various divisions of the bank (training, marketing, consulting and other divisions). The latter include income from the sale of information, advertising, auditing, legal, computer, telecommunications, marketing, transport, security and other services provided to bank customers.
In addition to income from the main and secondary activities, banks also receive some other income that belongs to the category of other income: income from operations of previous years received and identified in the reporting year; fines, penalties, forfeits collected from customers; posting of surplus cash; recovery of reserves; income in the form of a refund of amounts from the budget for overpayment of income taxes; reimbursement of expenses for the protection of the building, utility payments from renting organizations; other.
These incomes are essentially unforeseen income and are generally not taken into account when making forecasts of the bank's income for the forthcoming period.
Commercial bank expenses
The expenses of commercial bikes represent the use of funds required to carry out all types of banking activities. They are subdivided according to the form of education, nature, period to which they relate, method of accounting
Expenses of commercial banks can be grouped according to the same classification as income: operating expenses, including interest expenses, commission expenses, for operations in financial markets, etc.; expenses for ensuring the functioning of the bank; other expenses.
Operating expenses are expenses incurred directly for the performance of banking operations. Their main difference from other types of expenses is that their volume depends
sieves on the volume and structure of operations performed by the bank. For this reason, operating expenses are also referred to as direct expenses.
The main part of the bank's credit resources forms attracted funds, the use of which must be paid. These costs are most of bank expenses. Payment for the use of attracted resources is carried out in the form of interest payments, and, accordingly, these expenses are interest-bearing.
Interest expenses of commercial banks engaged in various types of lending activities usually account for more than 50% of all its expenses. At the same time, their share in the total amount of expenses is different for each bank and depends, first of all, on the ratio of certain types of paid liabilities (obligations) of the bank.
The largest amounts of interest are usually paid on deposits of the population and loans received in the interbank market, deposits of legal entities. certificates of deposit, securities (bonds, interest-bearing bills). Banks pay relatively small interest for the use of funds held on demand accounts of individuals, as well as on settlement and current accounts of legal entities.
Thus, the volume of the bank's profit significantly depends on the size and ratio of various types of interest expenses, the smaller the amount of interest expenses, the greater the bank's profit.
The bank's expenses for providing non-credit services to customers are mainly related to the costs of paying for services: correspondent banks, the central bank, stock exchanges, law firms, processing and clearing centers, etc. Payment for such services is usually made in the form of a commission from the amount of the transaction. In this regard, this group of expenses is classified as commission. Fee expenses make up a small proportion of the bank's total expenses.
A separate group of expenses of the bike are the expenses for the implementation of operations in the financial markets. This group includes expenses for the acquisition of shares, bonds, payment of coupon income on bonds, payment of promissory notes, as well as expenses for the revaluation of securities and other property. This group of expenses can also include expenses on operations with foreign currency,
Other operating expenses include a number of expenses directly related to certain banking operations. These are postal and telegraph expenses for customer payments, taxes attributable to bank expenses, etc.
The costs of ensuring the functioning of the bank include costs that cannot be attributed directly to certain banks -
sour operation. These expenses are, in essence, "general business". The amount of these expenses is directly dependent on the volume of operations and all activities of the bank.
The expenses for ensuring the functioning of the bank include the following types of expenses: for the maintenance of all buildings (offices) and auxiliary premises (expenses for operation and repair, depreciation, rent of premises, communal payments and payment of taxes on land and property), etc.; for the maintenance of personnel (payment for all types of labor, travel expenses, social and household expenses, labor protection expenses, expenses for training and advanced training, etc.); for the purchase and operation of banking equipment (computers, software, telecommunications equipment, office equipment, safes, office furniture and equipment, various inventory, etc.); for means of communication, telecommunications and information services (payment for telephones and faxes, the Internet, communication channels, information publications and products, special periodicals); for advertising; transport; other (payment for legal services, consulting, auditing services, scientific research services, taxes attributable to costs, etc.).
The indicated expenses for ensuring the functioning of the bank's activities can also be grouped according to various other criteria: expenses incurred at the expense of the bank's profit and expenses attributable to expenses; standardized and non-standardized expenses; current and capital expenditures; purchase of equipment, etc.
The group of other expenses usually includes bank expenses due to unforeseen (unplanned) reasons. Other expenses include expenses for write-offs, shortages and theft, fines paid, penalties, forfeits, expenses for write-offs accounts receivable, expenses associated with the payment of amounts for customer claims, expenses of previous years identified in the reporting year, and other expenses.
Costs constitute a special group of expenses in banking practice. associated with the formation of a reserve fund intended to cover possible losses and losses on loans, possible losses on other active operations, on receivables, on depreciation of various types of securities.

In the course of their operation, commercial banks seek to reasonably reduce costs. One of the methods of control over the reasonableness of bank expenses, focused on their rational reduction, is budgeting, which is a compilation of a system of interrelated financial plans(balance sheets) of a commercial bank.
In the practice of a number of commercial banks, the following types of budgets are compiled: operating income and expenses; budgets of financial resources, staff costs, capital investments; administrative expenses. The planning period is usually one goal. Estimates of planned costs are compiled taking into account the relationship between the composition of costs and the direction of their use, the full distribution of costs according to the estimates of each of the bank's divisions. The budgeting method makes it possible to manage the bank's expenses based on an analysis of the reasons for the deviation of actual expenses from planned indicators and their corresponding adjustment.
The ratio of income and expenses of the bank characterizes the interest margin - an important indicator of the bank's performance. It is defined as the difference between interest income and expenses of a commercial bank, i.e. between interest received and paid. The importance of this indicator is determined by the fact. that the margin characterizes the profitability of lending operations and at the same time shows the bank's ability to cover its costs at the expense of the margin.
The margin can be characterized both by absolute values ​​in rubles and by relative indicators as a percentage. The absolute value of the margin is defined as the difference between the total amount of interest income and expenses of the bank, as well as between interest income and corresponding expenses for certain types of active operations.
The change in the absolute value of the interest margin is determined by a number of factors: the volume of credit investments and other active operations that generate interest income; the difference between interest rates on active and passive operations (spread); the structure of attracted resources; the ratio between own capital and attracted resources; the share of active operations that generate interest income; inflation rates, etc.
Interest margin ratios can show its actual and sufficient level for a given bank. The coefficient of the actual interest margin (Kf11Ch) characterizes the relative actual value of the interest source of the bank's profit. It is calculated as follows:

Income-generating assets - all types of loans to legal and individuals, banks, investment in securities, in factoring and leasing operations, in other enterprises. In some cases, to calculate this coefficient, the average asset balance is used, which is determined on the basis of the total asset of the bank's balance sheet, cleared of regulatory items (Instruction No. 1 of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation).

Sufficient interest margin ratio characterizes the minimum margin required for a particular bank and is determined by the formula

Interest margin on lending operations (KPH1SO) is calculated by the formula
When calculating a sufficient interest margin, the composition of other income includes the following types of income from payment for non-credit services: fees for collection, for settlement and cash services, information and consulting services of the bank, for other services, interest and commission received in addition for previous periods, fines received , penalties, penalties.
All margin indicators are calculated both on the basis of actual data for the past period and for the forecast period.
Formation and use of profit.
Profitability indicators
The profit of a commercial tank is the main financial result of the bank's activities, defined as the difference between all income and expenses. If expenses exceed income, then this result has a negative value and is called a loss.
Profit is the source and basis of stability financial position bank and the liquidity of its balance sheet, increase and renewal of the bank's fixed assets, growth of its equity, increase and improve the quality of banking services. The higher the absolute value of profit, the greater the possibility of increasing
increasing the bank's own capital and resources for the growth of its active operations.
The formation and distribution of profits of a commercial bank is due to the specifics of banking, the cycle of income and expenses of the bike (Fig. 10.4).

Rice. 10.4. Formation and distribution of profits of a commercial bank

In the practice of the functioning of the bank, several indicators of profit are used. The difference between the amount of gross income and the amount of costs attributed in accordance with the current regulation to bank expenses is called balance or gross profit (loss).
Based on the above classification of income and expenses, the bank's balance sheet income is divided as follows: operating income, defined as the difference between the sum of operating income and expenses; interest income, defined as the excess of interest income received by the bank over interest expenses; over commission expenses; profit from operations in financial markets, defined as the difference between income and expenses from these operations;
other types of profit received from other types of activities.
The largest share in the composition of profit is operating profit, and in it - interest income.
From the balance sheet profits, contributions are also made to the budget. From January 1, 2002, the income tax rate is 24%.
An important indicator characterizing the financial result is net profit commercial bank (profit remaining at the disposal of the bank), which is the final financial result of the commercial bank, i.e. the balance of the bank's income after covering all expenses related to banking activities, paying taxes and deductions to various funds.
The volume of the bank's net profit depends on the volume of the bank's income, the amount of the corresponding expenses of the bank, and the amount of tax paid from profits to the budget.
Currently current Rules accounting reports in credit institutions, the following procedure for calculating net profit is provided. Net interest and similar income = Interest earned and similar income - Interest paid and similar expenses. Net fee and commission income = Fee and commission income - Fee and commission expenses. Current income = Net interest and similar slips + Net fee and commission income + Other operating income. Net current income before provisions and excluding contingencies = Current income - Other operating expenses. Net current income excluding contingencies = = Item 4 - Change in the amount of reserves (reserve for possible losses on loans, reserve for depreciation of securities, reserves for other operations). Net income before income tax = Item 5 + Income - Income. Net profit (loss) of the reporting goal = Item 6 - Income tax - Deferred income tax - Contingencies after tax.
The bank's net profit minus dividends paid to shareholders (participants) of the bank is called capitalized profit.
Net profit is distributed in the following main areas:
contributions to accumulation funds, (replenishment of authorized and other funds),
contributions to the special purpose fund (consumption); contribution to the reserve fund; payment of dividends to shareholders (participants).
Part of the bank's profit allocated to accumulation and special purpose funds is targeted and spent on the acquisition of fixed assets, on the social development of the bank's staff, and on consumer and charitable purposes.
At the expense of net profit remaining at the disposal of the bank, the following expenses are incurred: capital expenditures (construction, reconstruction, modernization, acquisition of fixed assets); awards, material aid, remuneration, allowances to bank employees paid in cash and in kind; mandatory contributions to state non-budgetary funds in terms of the cost of paying employees' labor attributable to net profit; contributions to non-state pension funds and other types of insurance; advertising expenses, travel and hospitality expenses incurred in excess of the established norms: expenses and measures for protection health and other social expenses: payment of dividends to shareholders (shareholders) of the bank; expenses associated with the organization of branches and representative offices by the bank, including abroad; payment of taxes on transactions with securities acquired in the ownership of the bank, other taxes and fees related to at the expense of net profit, interest paid on overdue interbank loans, including centralized loans and overdrafts, contributions to the budget in the form of sanctions in accordance with the law.
Part of the profit goes to the reserve fund - if it is less than 15% of the authorized capital of the bank; At least 5% of profits must be deducted to this fund annually.
In accordance with the current practice and the provisions of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, the balances of the funds formed from the profits of previous years that have not been used at the beginning of the reporting year can be directed to the formation of a reserve fund. remaining at the disposal of the bank, the use of which does not reduce the value of the bank's property and which are included in the calculation of the amount of capital
bank according to the methodology of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. At the same time, this redistribution of funds between funds should be recorded in a special intra-bank Regulation on the procedure for the formation and use of funds generated from deductions from net profit.
The main directions and procedure for using the reserve fund are regulated by the charter of a commercial bank and the Regulations of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, in accordance with which the funds of the reserve fund can be used for the following: covering bank losses based on the results of work for the reporting year; increase in the statutory fund through capitalization in the manner prescribed by law and shareholders (shareholders) of the bank; formation of funds from the profits of previous years, remaining at the disposal of the bank, the use of which does not reduce the amount of the bank's property and which are included in the calculation of the amount of the bank's capital, to the extent that it exceeds the established minimum size statutory fund:
Portion of commercial bank profits to finance acquisition costs computer science, special equipment, means of communication, transport, i.e. to increase fixed assets is sent to a special accumulation fund.
For stimulation labor activity bank staff and social development team certain part profits can be deducted to special purpose funds (material incentive fund and social development fund). The use of special purpose funds is carried out by the bank in accordance with the approved estimates.
The distribution of profits in joint-stock banks should be carried out in accordance with federal law"About joint-stock companies” (Article 48) and letter of the Central Bank dated January 22, 2003 No. 9-T, according to which the distribution of profits (including the payment (declaration) of dividends, with the exception of profits distributed as dividends based on the results of the first quarter, six months, nine months of the financial year) is carried out general meeting shareholders based on the results of the financial year.
It should be emphasized that, in accordance with the current legislation, the payment of dividends is a right, and not an obligation, of a joint-stock company. The meeting of shareholders of the bank may decide not to pay dividends on ordinary shares and use those funds for other purposes. Dividends on preferred shares must be paid without fail; in case of a lack of profit, they are paid at the expense of the reserve fund.

The procedure for the use of profits and the formation of relevant funds is regulated founding documents credit institution and instructions of the Bank of Russia.
The undistributed part of the profit is a source of financing costs and expenses that are not included in the bank's expenses, which include: expenses for the maintenance of non-production facilities ( training centers, medical institutions, etc.), expenses related to the organization of branches and representative offices, expenses for voluntary insurance of banking operations, etc.
The volume, structure and dynamics of the profit of a commercial bank is analyzed in various directions. These include: analysis of the volume of profit for the reporting period, analysis of balance sheet profit and its structure, analysis of net profit, use of profit, analysis of profit in the context structural divisions bank, the profitability of the main areas of banking activities and operations performed by the bank.
In the practice of analyzing the level of profit of a commercial bank, three main methods are used: structural analysis of sources of profit, factor analysis, system analysis financial ratios.
The volume of profit and its structure, despite the importance of this generalizing indicator, does not always provide complete information about the level of efficiency of the bank. The final characteristic of the bank's profitability can be considered its profitability or rate of return.
Profitability indicators mean the ratio of profit to costs and, in this sense, characterize the results of the bank's performance, i.e. the return of its financial resources, supplementing the analysis of absolute indicators with qualitative content. The general economic meaning of profitability indicators is manifested in the fact that they characterize the profit received from each spent by the bank (own and borrowed) ruble.
There are a significant number of different indicators of profitability.
The overall profitability of the bank (Rogm) allows you to evaluate the overall profitability of the bank, as well as the profit attributable to I rub. income (share of profit in income):
Profit.
I "j.ts \u003d - - x 100%.
Oaica income
In world practice, this indicator is specified by the indicator of the overall profitability of the bank, calculated as the ratio of the volume

This indicator is known in world practice as ROE (return on egnity). calculated as the ratio of the total balance sheet or net (after-tax) profit of the bank (P) to its own capital (K) or paid-in authorized capital.
profit received for a certain period to the share capital (authorized fund):

Calculations of this and other indicators of profitability depend on the reporting and accounting system adopted in the country. In Russian conditions, when calculating the profitability indicator, balance sheet profit is currently used.
The ROE indicator shows the efficiency of the bank, characterizing the performance of the funds invested by shareholders (shareholders). The value of ROE is directly dependent on the ratio of equity capital and borrowed funds in the total currency of the bank's balance sheet. At the same time, the greater the share of equity capital, and, as is commonly believed, the higher the reliability of the bank, the more difficult it is to ensure high profitability of one's capital.
Another important indicator of the overall profitability of the bank - the rate of return on assets (ROA - return on assets), showing the amount of profit attributable to the ruble of bank assets. This indicator is used in the analysis of the effectiveness of the active operations of the bank, the effectiveness of the management of the bank as a whole and is determined by the following formula:

where A is the average value of assets.
The positive dynamics of this profitability indicator characterizes an increase in the efficiency of using the bank's assets. At the same time, a rapid increase in this indicator indicates an increase in the degree of risks associated with the placement of assets.
Analysis of various aspects of profitability requires the calculation of profitability indicators of active and passive operations of the bank. Active operations are the main source of income for the bank and, based on this, the profitability of the bank is determined by the effectiveness of active operations.

To calculate and analyze the profitability of certain types of active operations: credit, investment, foreign exchange, etc., it is necessary to determine the amount of income received from each group of active operations of the same type and compare it with the corresponding amount of expenses incurred for these operations:


The unprofitability of passive operations through which the bank's resources are attracted is calculated as the ratio of the total amount of attracted resources to the total amount of the bank's investment:

general characteristics the profitability (efficiency) of attracting liabilities should be detailed by profitability indicators for specific types of attracted resources: deposits, bills, interbank lending.

ECONOMY AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT

N. A. BOGDANOVA

ESSENCE OF THE FINANCIAL RESULTS OF A COMMERCIAL BANK

The main factors of formation of financial results of commercial banks and important principles of their formation are considered.

Key words: bank profit, prerequisites for implementation, development strategy.

Commerce in the banking sector is based on certain principles. Chief among them is the principle of profitable management, the achievement of the greatest possible profit. The driving motive of the bank's activities is profit.

Bank profit is important for all participants in the economic process. Shareholders are interested in profit, as it represents a return on invested capital. Savings benefit depositors as more reserves and better services result in a stronger, safer and more efficient banking system. Borrowers have an indirect interest in sufficient bank profits, due to the fact that the bank's ability to provide loans depends on the size and structure of its capital, and profit is the main source of equity.

A prerequisite for the implementation of the goals of banking commerce is the security of banking. Ceteris paribus, the profit of the bank is higher, the higher the security of the bank and the lower the risk. Nevertheless, the bank is a risky enterprise. No wonder they say that a commercial bank is a risk, then a waiting period, followed by profit or loss. But it is harmful for commerce to rely on the principle of chance; on the contrary, it is of a permanent nature, while the goals of commerce, with various fluctuations, must be realized. The principle of banking commerce is that the bank, as an economic enterprise, can risk its capital, its profit, but not the capital of the client, his profit. The bank may suffer from bad or inept commerce, but the client should never suffer.

© BogdanovaN. A., 2011

Banking commerce should operate on the principle: everything for the client. The bank bears full responsibility for the client, ensures his profit. Since banking commerce is deployed on the economy as a whole, profitability, making a profit cannot be the goal of the bank alone, it is the common goal of the bank with the client. In practice, everything must be in agreement: first of all, the profit of the client, and then the profit of the bank; it is true, however, that the client's profit is not the only goal, but the basis for obtaining bank profits. Providing profit to the client, the bank realizes its own interest.

Partnership relations of a commercial bank with clients are based on the principle of mutual interest. Only in the event that the bank and the enterprise are interested in each other, one can expect that partnership relations between them will really take place.

Under the strategy of a commercial bank, one must understand the direction of the most effective bank activity. If a strategy is developed, if a scientific understanding of banking is formed, then this is a decisive factor in the success of banking. For the organizers of the bank, its goals should be clear, while the strategic positions are assumed to be different. Of course, the policy of the bank in each case will be different. The strategy should take into account the external conditions of banking activities, determine the result that the bank seeks to achieve. We can say that the strategy is, as it were, part of common system, an element, a factor in the success of banking.

The purpose of a commercial bank is determined from the position of its profitability, profitability, balance sheet structure, directions of its activities

(deposit policy, policy in the financial market, in the field of lending interest, etc.).

Next to the strategic orientation of the bank, which determines the success of banking, we should highlight the quality and qualifications of management, its marketing activity. Western banks were able to make a qualitative leap in their development, primarily due to well-established marketing and management. Emphasis on modern methods management, technology, wide connections of the bank with external structures, no doubt, can give our banks a powerful impetus for development. It should be noted that it is the lack of an entrepreneurial culture and an inefficient management system that are currently a noticeable brake on banking services.

The strategy of a commercial bank is unthinkable without appealing to bank personnel. The head of a bank is not a nomenklatura position, he is not so much an administrator as a banker in the truest sense of the word, a professional with commercial and analytical skills.

In order for the Russian banking system to become part of the global banking system, it is necessary to solve the problem of improving the balance sheet of domestic commercial banks, as well as unifying accounting rules and regulations based on international standards.

International standards are designed to unify accounting based on the following requirements:

b) criteria for entering into the reporting of its various elements;

c) rules for evaluating these elements;

d) the amount of information presented in the reporting.

The main purpose of international standards for the general financial reporting of commercial banks is to make it such that it can be useful to the largest number of users for making economic decisions.

One of the purposes of these reporting forms is to maintain the credibility of the bank by showing how it is managed and how it protects the interests of its depositors. Consequently, such reporting maintains mutual trust between the bank and its partners, which gives it advantages, including material ones, for the long term. In addition, the publication of banking

information in the form of such reports allows it to be understood by users around the world.

Reporting forms meet the requirements of a large part of users outside the bank. These users are:

a) those who give the bank resources, i.e. its current or potential Russian or foreign shareholders (shareholders), depositors and lenders;

b) bank employees, its borrowers, Russian and international financial institutions, tax authorities and the Central Bank of Russia.

All users need information to help them assess the real financial condition, profitability and risks of the bank, taking into account the new economic rules. They also need information that would enable them to correctly understand the operations carried out by the bank.

Accounting must provide information base for the preparation and analysis of financial statements in accordance with international standards.

The following incomes are directly related to the financial results of banks' activities:

Dividends and interest received on shares, bonds and other Russian Federation securities owned by the bank, as well as income received from equity participation in the activities of other banks, enterprises and organizations. These incomes are taxed at the source of their payment;

Positive exchange rate differences on the bank's operations in foreign currency, including unrealized positive exchange rate differences on the open currency position;

Fines, penalties, forfeits and other types of sanctions awarded or recognized by the debtor for violation of the terms of the contract, as well as income from compensation for losses caused to the bank, including payments related to credit risk insurance;

Amounts received from bank employees in compensation for losses and expenses incurred by the bank through their fault;

The bank's profit of previous years, revealed in the reporting year;

Income from the sale by the bank in the manner prescribed by law of objects of pledge and mortgage (tangible and intangible assets, goods consumer goods and other property)

Repayment by customers of loans previously written off as bank losses;

Other income from transactions not directly related to banking activities, including income from the sale of fixed assets and other property owned by the bank.

The following expenses and losses are directly related to the financial performance of banks:

Local taxes and fees attributable to the financial results of the bank's activities in accordance with the law;

Awarded or recognized fines, penalties, forfeits and other types of sanctions for violations by the bank of the terms of agreements (except for amounts paid to the budget in the form of sanctions in accordance with the law), as well as expenses for reimbursement of losses caused by the bank to customers;

Impossible losses on loans, not compensated by the reserve, losses from the write-off of receivables of individual borrowers for which the limitation period has expired, and other types that are unrealistic to collect;

Losses on operations of previous years identified in the reporting year;

Uncompensated losses from natural disasters, fires, accidents, other emergencies caused by extreme conditions, including costs associated with the prevention or elimination of the consequences of natural disasters and accidents;

Negative exchange rate differences on bank operations in foreign currency, including unrealized negative exchange rate differences on the open currency position;

Losses incurred by the bank on false advice;

Legal costs and arbitration costs in cases related to the activities of the bank;

Losses from theft, the perpetrators of which are not established by court decisions, including:

a) miscalculations and shortages in cash transactions (except for foreign exchange transactions);

b) theft and embezzlement in cash transactions (except for currency values);

c) losses on foreign operations and currency values;

d) accepted non-payment and counterfeit banknotes and coins;

e) theft, embezzlement and other abuses of collection and transportation of valuables;

f) theft, embezzlement and other abuses in other operations of the bank (except for cash operations and collection and transportation of valuables);

g) loss of valuables during shipment;

h) amounts paid on customer claims.

Profit (loss) is determined on an accrual basis during the current calendar financial year. At the same time, the profit of one quarter can be reduced or blocked by the loss of the next.

At the end of the year, the profit is fully or partially distributed, and the loss is repaid from various sources.

The distribution of profits is made in accordance with the legislation and the constituent documents of the bank.

According to the current chart of accounts, income and expenses are required to be recorded on a cash basis: when the bank receives or pays funds or their equivalent. Therefore, the financial result is formed by comparing accrued and received income with accrued and incurred expenses. Thus, a financial result for taxation is formed.

But according to international practice, the financial statements of banks should reflect all income and expenses related to the reporting period, regardless of when the funds or their equivalent were received or paid. Transactions must be recorded on the day the rights or obligations associated with them arise. Therefore, this method of building up provides for the formation of a financial result by comparing the accrued income for the reporting period, regardless of the receipt of money and the accrued expense for the reporting period, regardless of the expenditure of funds. So it is prayed to determine the financial result for the bank itself and the Central Bank of the Russian Federation.

The full structure of the annual reporting includes: Balance sheet; Gains and losses report; Report on the use of profits; Information on the composition of the bank's funds, various funds and special purpose funds; Report on theft and miscalculations; Certificate of balances on correspondent accounts and sub-accounts opened with other banks (branches); Labor report; Explanatory letter.

Therefore, it is necessary that the Central Bank of the Russian Federation draw up a new Chart of Accounts as soon as possible, taking into account world standards and introduce international methods and principles into our accounting system.

Bogdanova Natalya Albertovna, candidate economic sciences, associate professor of the department ((Accounting, analysis and audit "Ulyanovsk State Technical University.

Nikolaeva T.I.

It is known that the resources of the enterprise and the requirements of cost-effective work to a certain extent limit the maneuvering, both in the range of goods and in their prices. But it is the focus on customer demand and its active formation that should determine the use of available resources. Hence the successful sale of goods, which ensures the efficiency of the enterprise.

Commercial work in trade is the activity of an enterprise aimed at solving a specific set of tasks. The study of the processes of their implementation is an important element of operational research at the level of a trade enterprise and a region.

We consider the consumer as an equal participant in commercial activities. The main participants in commercial activities, in accordance with our position, are not only business structures, but also consumers (whose participation in the limit-distributive economy was weak). This statement is based on the fact that for entrepreneurs, the most important factor in concluding transactions is income (economic benefit), and for consumers, the benefit is the product (service) he needs, if he more satisfies his needs (consumer interests). The consumer is not a passive buyer, but a full participant in commercial activities, its regulator. Thus, the most important category of subjects of business relations between suppliers of goods and the retail link is the consumer.

Rice. 1. A set of tasks of commercial activity in the market of goods and services

Therefore, we consider the complex of tasks of commercial activity of subjects of the consumer market through meeting the needs of the population. The consumer, realizing his interests, has a decisive influence on the behavior of entrepreneurs in the market when concluding transactions, choosing a market segment, organizing sales and sales of goods, forming an assortment, pricing policy.

The democratization of trade and freedom of entrepreneurship revived enterprise, individual collective initiative, material and moral interest of trade workers, which intensified their activity in the consumer market. Now enterprises themselves solve economic issues, carry out more profitable transactions, which helps to increase their profitability. The nature of the economic relations of trade with other subjects of the market infrastructure has changed based on a combination of interests of the enterprise and territories.

For an in-depth impact study commercial work on the performance of enterprises, we made an attempt to develop a system of the main components of its assessment, which could be used as a self-assessment of the commercial work of each enterprise. Such a system, in our opinion, will help the territorial and economic bodies to determine the directions for improving the management of commercial activities.

The theoretical novelty of the assessment methods we propose was tested in practice in the Sverdlovsk region during the period of adaptation of trade to the market (since 1995). To do this, commercial work was represented by four blocks characterizing the type of commercial activity, and indicators evaluating its effectiveness (Table 1).

Table 1

The system of indicators for evaluating the commercial work of trade enterprises

Direction of commercial Activities	Performance indicator commercial work
The range of products and Formation	Range breadth Assortment depth Assortment update rate Assortment sustainability factor
Planning product offer and provision of goods	Trade turnover growth index Growth (reduction) in the time of circulation of goods The degree of compliance of commodity stocks with the standard Procurement plan execution index The degree of fulfillment of contractual obligations by suppliers Rhythm of receipt of goods by assortment Coefficient of acceptable quality level of goods Gross income index
Formation and stimulation of demand	Correspondence of the volume and structure of the product offer with the volume and structure of consumer demand The degree of assortment renewal Purchase completion rate Volume and structure of unsatisfied demand
Economic efficiency commercial activities	Growth in gross income from commercial operations Growth in profit from commercial activities The ratio of income and expenses for the purchase and sale of goods

Among the tools of commercial activity of a trading enterprise, assortment policy occupies a special place.

The first block in the system for evaluating commercial activities - "The range of goods and its formation" - consists of four indicators, which we examined in detail when assessing the breadth and depth of the assortment in stores. The assortment renewal coefficient testifies to the development and nature of economic relations of trade, both with domestic and foreign partners, as well as the work of enterprises to update the range. The stability coefficient of the assortment characterizes the species composition of the offered goods in the commodity group (subgroup). This block is especially important for evaluating the work of enterprises selling goods of the provided assortment list.

In the assortment policy, in our opinion, the following factors should be taken into account: the availability of a variety of goods in stores; stability and flexibility of the assortment, its compliance with changes in demand and seasonal fluctuations; rational placement of goods in stores. All this is fundamentally important.

In a market economy, the formation of the assortment is the prerogative of the trading enterprises themselves. The assortment lists existing in stores are based on the production and technical sign of the grouping of goods, which does not allow to take into account the complexity of demand, the mutual complementarity of goods, seasonal features of demand development and other conditions with sufficient completeness.

Of the totality of trade enterprises in the Sverdlovsk region, our attention as an object of analysis of the assortment policy was attracted by large stores Yekaterinburg, selling a universal range of goods mainly for food purposes. As mentioned earlier, they are promising, they are preferred by the population of the city. The active assortment policy pursued by these stores made it possible to create an individual and completely different assortment from competitors.

To characterize the assortment of individual trade enterprises and determine the effectiveness of the assortment policy, we analyzed the structure of the assortment, its breadth and, in part, its depth. It was found that it is possible to characterize only the actual structure of the assortment of goods in stores, since employees do not have information about the preferred assortment, and the study of demand is reduced mainly to elementary accounting of commodity sales, more often by group assortment. At the enterprises, the analysis of the range of goods is not carried out.

Studies have shown that almost all contracts and specifications for them do not contain information about the detailed range of goods. When concluding commercial transactions, supply contracts, contracts, there is practically no strict coordination of the intra-group assortment. The situation develops in favor of the manufacturer-supplier and more often the “dealer”. This adversely affects the correspondence between supply and demand, and leads to unreasonable price increases.

The actual completeness of the assortment and its dynamics can serve as evidence of a competent assortment policy. As we have established, the completeness of the assortment depends not only on the sales area of ​​the store, the volume of trade. Important factors that ensure the completeness of the range are financial stability, the authority of the enterprise in the market of goods and services. Suppliers of goods have great confidence in stores that accept goods in large quantities, make payments in a timely manner, and have a high degree of reliability ( high rates trade turnover, high profitability etc.).

For increase social level sales service trade and operational employees of stores should pay special attention to the sustainability of the range. On the one hand, this indicator significantly affects the level of service, and on the other hand, it indicates the rhythm of delivery. The stability of the assortment is a guideline for the buyer.

To characterize the effectiveness of commercial activities, both a separate trading enterprise and their aggregate across the territory, in our opinion, the most interesting indicator is the degree of renewal of the product range, that is, its replenishment with new products and products. This indicator can be determined by the refresh factor. It seems to be especially important for working with non-food products. By group non-food items it is defined as a period of obsolescence 1 .

In operational work (replenishment and regulation of the assortment of a trading enterprise), we recommend using such an indicator as the share of new goods (products or products) in the volume of new receipts, and when assessing long-term economic relations - the share of new products (products) in the total output of goods. Specialists should highlight products with improved consumer properties.

We propose to supplement this information block with calculations of the stability (stability) of the assortment, which will allow us to judge the absence (presence) of interruptions in sales individual goods. For specialists involved in the analysis of the stability of the sale of goods with a fluctuating (uneven) number of purchases during the day, the introduction of such accounting will help not only evaluate the effectiveness of the organization of goods supply, but also determine the rationality of the assortment structure and the effectiveness of the assortment policy of a trading enterprise. An analysis of the breadth and stability (stability) of the assortment must be carried out on the basis of operational data on the state of current stocks, highlighting goods with a slow turnover.

The second block of indicators - “Product supply planning and provision of goods” - consists of eight indicators reflecting the planned growth in the turnover of enterprises, changes in its structure based on the product offer, the volume of planned gross income, commodity stocks, turnover, product quality. These indicators form the basis of plans for the purchase of goods, the selection of suppliers, the definition of delivery conditions, assortment, terms, delivery batches, prices and settlements with suppliers, etc. The higher the indices of these indicators, the more effective economic ties. Here, long-term, the degree of constancy of economic ties, and especially the fulfillment of contractual obligations, are important.

Since the same product appears in commercial transactions, there is no significant increase in the total turnover. At the same time, with the development of competition in the consumer market, a real opportunity has appeared for trade enterprises to choose profitable suppliers. At the same time, the role of local commodity producers in the production of food is increasing in the formation of the product offer.

Suppliers of imported goods are mainly resellers of goods, or intermediaries, and private firms. The services of such suppliers, as a rule, are used by non-food stores. This is due to the desire to save transport costs, financial resources, labor costs at trade enterprises when using the services of intermediaries. The participation of intermediaries often leads to an unreasonable increase in the number of links in the movement of goods, an increase in prices and their evasion from paying the necessary payments to the budget.

The effectiveness of economic relations as the most important area of ​​commercial activity largely determines the correct choice of supplier and forms of trade transactions. The number of suppliers, the frequency of importation of goods, according to our observations, depends on the type of store, the capacity of the store, the assortment profile, which are decisive in the formation of the assortment and turnover volumes. With an increase in the trading area, the frequency of importation of goods increases, and, consequently, the turnover. In general, the funds of the enterprise are spent more economically.

The greatest efficiency of commercial activity is observed at large enterprises various forms property and is explained by the presence of long-term economic ties with major suppliers. This ensures that the specialists of this group of enterprises are highly informed about the current market situation and its prospects. Small and medium-sized enterprises, deprived of such an opportunity, most often rely in their activities on irregular, random connections. The main suppliers of goods for them are various intermediaries, which not only complicates the actual accounting of trade, but also leads to a significant increase in consumer prices and the almost complete absence of quality control of goods.

table 2

Distribution of indicators according to the degree of significance (preferences) for a trade enterprise when choosing partners-suppliers of goods

	The average monthly retail turnover of a store in 1996
Indicator	up to 300 million	from 500 to 1000 million rubles	From 2000 and above million rubles.
Risk avoidance
The price of the product
Product quality
Product range
Supplier location
Delivery terms
Consideration of consumer interests

This conclusion is confirmed by the results of surveys of heads of trade enterprises with different volumes of trade. 200 stores in Yekaterinburg were surveyed. Regardless of the volume of trade, it is preferable for them to make a profit (Table 2). For small enterprises (with an average monthly turnover of up to 300 million rubles) great importance have the terms of delivery, as well as the price of the goods and the possibility of avoiding risk. For larger enterprises (with a turnover of more than 500 million rubles), the quality of goods and the avoidance of risk are important. Large enterprises, on the other hand, give preference to the quality of goods, assortment and consideration of the interests of the consumer. Therefore, such enterprises are more preferable when choosing a place of purchase for the buyer.

The privatization of trade and the increase in the share of the private sector led to a spontaneity in the organization of the market as a whole, which led to the reluctance of both suppliers and sellers to work with high-cost essential goods. Miscalculations and mistakes in the activities of market entities are aggravated by the lack of a regional information bank of data on market conditions. The absence of a unified commodity policy reduces the effectiveness of the commercial activities of the enterprise's employees in its various areas.

The analysis of the information presented by the experts showed that the violation of specialization, both among producers and trading enterprises, reduces the efficiency of economic relations and, ultimately, increases consumption costs.

The third block is “Formation and stimulation of demand“. It is advisable to use this group of indicators when assessing the compliance of the volume and structure of demand with the product offer. The proposed indicators are calculated for the enterprise, based on the assortment, its breadth, data on the demand of the population and factors affecting the degree of completion of purchases.

This direction of commercial activity is inextricably linked with the blocks that characterize the planning of a product offer and the formation of an assortment of goods. It is as a result of the supply of goods to the consumer that the demand is formed, and as a result of the analysis of the demand of the population, the purchase of goods is carried out and the assortment and price policy. In this block, an important place is occupied by the advertising work of trade and manufacturing enterprises.

The characterization of advertising made by experts reflects the lack of attention paid to this area of ​​commercial activity. Advertising does not have a sufficient stimulating effect (for most stores) on the volume of sales of goods in order to recoup the costs of its organization.

The fourth block - "Economic efficiency of commercial activity" - characterizes the effectiveness of the management of commercial work, both for a particular enterprise and for a set of enterprises in a certain territory. These indicators complete and summarize the evaluation of business activities.

In a trading enterprise, commercial activity directly affects both its economic results and the social efficiency of trade in general. As we have already considered, the economic and social efficiency of trade are closely interconnected. Economic efficiency commercial activity, in our opinion, should be evaluated by economic results that characterize the work of the enterprise as a whole: generalizing economic indicators (turnover, costs, profits, prices); indicators of resource use (production, turnover); the quality of trade services (breadth, stability and renewal of the assortment); the quality of goods.

The study of each direction of effectiveness constitutes a specific area. The effectiveness of trade management is assessed, first of all, from the standpoint of the quality of trade services and the profitability of enterprises. The components of management efficiency largely depend on the organization of commercial activities and its results, since in the course of commercial operations, trade turnover, enterprise income, a range of goods are formed, and their quality is checked.

Analyzing the impact of commercial activity on economic results, we concluded that the profitability is higher for those trading enterprises that have a wide range of goods, high turnover, clear economic ties and increase the pace of retail turnover, improve work with customers.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of the commercial activities of enterprises, according to the methodology proposed by us, can be carried out both on the basis of expert assessments as well as by the enterprises themselves. Such work is necessary when planning economic activity, identifying the reasons for non-fulfillment of planned targets, finding reserves to improve the efficiency of enterprises, determining the strategy for its development. Evaluation of commercial activity gives an idea of ​​the adaptation of the enterprise to market conditions, allows not only to develop a strategy and tactics for the behavior of commercial enterprises, but also to improve the efficiency of their management at the territory level. Its application will allow business entities to identify weak and strengths trading activity and concentrate all conditions on the directions that are the most promising and profitable.

Evaluating the commercial activity of trade when it enters the market, we have established:

1. Enterprises are gradually adapting to the market situation, there have been positive changes in their work. The commercial activity of trade has significantly intensified, there has been an improvement in the structure of trade turnover due to an increase in the volume and a change in the composition of the product offer based on the expansion of the geography of interregional and international relations. The degree of satisfaction of consumer demand has increased, both in terms of volume and structure. This is due to the expansion, updating of the range and the promotion of goods and services that are fundamentally new for the population of the region.

2. In the course of the reform, due to the development and deepening of the sphere of activity of the subjects, the substantive aspect of the commercial activity of trade enterprises has fundamentally changed. Now a significant part retail businesses combine wholesale and retail sale and wholesale - retail. Expand retail and manufacturing businesses. Thus, they ensure the maneuverability of commodity resources, the rapid delivery of goods to the consumer and the return on investment.

3. Our studies did not reveal significant changes in the organization of commercial activities at enterprises, the work of the services involved in it, the content and rational distribution of responsibilities between employees in the approach to solving problems. As before, the main commercial functions are carried out by heads of enterprises, which is especially typical for municipal stores and limited liability companies. Due to the workload and lack of knowledge of market processes and little experience in working in new conditions, these specialists do not provide high efficiency business activities in all areas.

Extension trading network, the emergence of new types of trade enterprises ensured the influx of workers into trade who do not have special training and do not have the necessary set of knowledge, as evidenced by official statistics, sample surveys and expert surveys. At the same time, the professional level and the prevailing stereotypes of activity personnel workers certain categories often come into conflict with the requirements of the changed external and internal environment enterprises.

4. The analysis of the effectiveness of the commercial activities of enterprises of various forms of ownership showed its greatest effectiveness in large enterprises. But the bulk of them are closest to the consumer - these are small shops. Their activities require all kinds of support from the state. In particular, it is necessary to establish information market centers on the ground, which would provide various enterprises necessary information about market conditions, market processes, etc. This can play a positive role both in terms of increasing the efficiency of trading activities and in terms of creating a favorable market environment.

The lack of market information, operational analysis data and the inability to constantly link commercial decisions with market conditions reduce the efficiency of the work of trade specialists. This is especially evident in the weakened attention to the work of studying the demand for goods directly at the trading enterprise. Here, work on the formation of consumer demand with the help of the necessary information and advertising is weakened.

5. We came to the conclusion that it is necessary to introduce a fundamentally new approach to managing commercial activities. This can be achieved by introducing marketing services (or at least their main elements) in each enterprise. Since marketing is a purely market concept for managing the commercial activities of an enterprise, it will allow the most harmonious combination of the market interests of the enterprise and the consumer. Practical marketing will bring real benefits to the enterprise only when its application is carried out. qualified specialists with knowledge in the field of market strategy and tactics.

A marketing service that adequately meets the requirements of the market is still in its infancy. Its development is constrained by the lack of funds from enterprises, specially trained personnel and methodological developments adapted to local conditions.

The above factors largely determine the approach to the assortment policy of enterprises, the planning of procurement activities, which determine the composition and structure of the product offer, the degree of satisfaction of consumer demand, and the organization of trade services.

6. Efficient commercial activity at the regional level ensures market saturation, a high level of consumer satisfaction, development of competition in the sphere of circulation, and therefore should be the area of ​​constant attention of the authorities. Control in certain areas of commercial activity (prices, trade allowances, taxes), carried out today by the forces of disunited, narrow departmental structures, does not allow obtaining whole picture ongoing processes, and even more so to ensure their integrated management.

The refusal to centralize the management of commercial activities should not be manifested in the complete removal of self-government bodies from its regulation. Analysis of the nature, forms and methods of such regulation is an independent, extremely topical issue requiring serious further research.

1. The technique was developed by the author (see Nikolaeva T.I. Adaptation of trade to market conditions. Ekaterinburg: Publishing house of USUE, 1995.).
2. Despite the fact that the study of the range of goods is a very important problem (even intersectoral), there are still no standards regulating its performance. Specialists and scientists trade have not yet come to a common view on the nomenclature and the essence of the indicators of the range of goods.
3. The measure of updating the range of goods should be considered the amount of deviation of the actual rates from their optimal values. The optimal renewal period can be calculated by the ratio of 100% to the obsolescence period. The result will show the proportion of items that are recommended to be replaced annually. It would be useful for employees of commercial or marketing services to take this indicator into account in their work.
4. Note. The technique was developed by the author. Based on data from surveys of heads of trade enterprises in the cities of the Sverdlovsk region.

For determining economic effect commercial business enterprise uses the system economic indicators which need to be considered in more detail.

The main function of commercial activity is to make a profit from the purchase and sale of goods. The amount of profit mainly depends on the volume of their sales and gross income. They are the source items that provide real income to the trading enterprise.

An indicator that characterizes the volume and quality of retail trade is turnover . Retail turnover - the volume of sales of goods in monetary terms. It characterizes the final stage of the movement of products from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of consumption, states the public recognition of the value and consumer value of a part of the social product in the form of specific types of goods; reflects the proportions between production and consumption, supply and demand, sales and money circulation, the volume and structure of the trading network, material and labor resources.

Retail turnover structure:

1. The macrostructure provides for a general, large division of goods (consumer goods and industrial and technical purposes, food and non-food).

2. Commodity-group structure reflects the division of products by purpose, industrial origin (bakery products, clothing, footwear, furniture, timber, rubber products, etc.).

3. The product assortment structure takes into account the ratio of individual types of products included in a certain group (clothing: men's, women's, children's; furniture: for housing, office space, offices, cottages, etc.)

4. The microstructure shows the share of specific products in the volume of sales of this assortment (suits; coats; overalls; footwear: winter, summer, demi-season; TVs: color, black-and-white, portable, etc.).

The structure of retail trade turnover is influenced by socio-demographic, economic factors, climatic conditions, national characteristics of the region.

There is a direct relationship between the turnover and the volume of sales of goods. The more target turnover, the higher the likelihood of an increase in the volume of sales of goods. In this case, the promotion of each individual product to the consumer per unit of time has a certain value. The volume of sales of goods is a variable value, its size and stability are influenced by many factors: the range of goods offered, the competitiveness of products, the price, the solvency of buyers, etc.

Gross income - the basis of commercial activity and profit generation. Covering costs and making a profit provides the gross income of the enterprise. According to the definitions adopted in the theory of enterprise economics, gross income is revenue from the sale of products (works, services) minus material costs on their production and includes wages and profits.

In practice, the concept and content of gross income depends on the accepted procedure for calculating profits and losses. Form No. 2 "About profit and loss account" there is no such concept at all. However, according to form No. 2, specialists give a scheme for calculating gross income as the difference between sales proceeds (excluding VAT, excises, etc.) and expenses for the sale of goods, products, works, services. 11 Sheremet A.D., Saifulin R.S., Negashev E.V. Methods of financial analysis. - M.: INFRA - M, 2010. - p. 41.

The main part of the gross income of a trade enterprise is income from the sale of goods (note income, not revenue) and paid trade services, i.e. gross income from trading activities.

The source of income from the sale of goods are trade markups (markups).

The company buys goods at one price and, adding a trade margin to it, sells them at a different price.

The size of the trade markup is set independently by the enterprise in accordance with the mechanism of market pricing to the wholesale (purchase) price of the goods as a percentage.

The following factors influence the trade markup: the nature of trade services (retail or wholesale); the name of the product and its use value; pricing policy of the enterprise; price and tax regulation by the state; degree of competition in the market. In the selling price of the goods, the share of the trade markup is approximately 30%, and with the development of the economy, it will grow.

Rice. one.

The source of income from the sale of paid trade services is the price of the services provided (meaning those paid services that are provided to customers by the personnel of a trade enterprise and are included in statistics in the retail turnover).

Income from the sale of products of non-trading activities are formed through the sale of goods, works and services of auxiliary and service industries of trade enterprises, if these industries do not have a separate balance sheet (for example, the provision of transport services to third-party enterprises by vehicles of a trade enterprise, auxiliary production and farms).

Income from the sale of other property are formed from the proceeds from the sale of certain types of fixed assets, intangible assets, securities, currency values ​​and other types of tangible and financial assets of a commercial enterprise. In addition to income from the sale of goods and services, non-operating income participates in the formation of the gross income of a trade enterprise.

non-operating income enterprises are income:

from equity participation in other organizations;

in the form of a positive (negative) exchange rate difference resulting from the deviation of the selling (purchasing) rate of foreign currency from the official rate established by central bank the Russian Federation as of the date of transfer of ownership of foreign currency;

in the form of fines, penalties and (or) other sanctions recognized by the debtor or payable by the debtor on the basis of a court decision that has entered into force for violation of contractual obligations, as well as amounts of compensation for losses or damage;

from the lease of property (sublease);

in the form of interest received under loan, credit, bank account, bank deposit agreements, as well as on securities and other debt obligations;

in the form of amounts by which in the reporting period there was a decrease in the authorized (share) capital (fund) of the organization, if such a decrease was carried out with a simultaneous refusal to return the value of the corresponding part of the contributions (contributions) to shareholders (participants) of the organization;

in the form of income received from operations with financial instruments term transactions;

in the form of the cost of surplus inventory and other property, which are identified as a result of the inventory;

in the form of the cost of production of funds mass media and book products subject to replacement upon return or write-off of such products on the grounds provided for by law, etc.

The gross income of a commercial enterprise is characterized by an absolute amount and level. The amount of gross income, expressed as a percentage of turnover, is called the level of gross income and is determined by the formula:

where Oud-- the level of gross income, in %;

VD-- the total amount of gross income in a certain period;

T- the total volume of trade in the same period.

The concept and composition of distribution costs. A commercial enterprise has costs that are different in nature and in the way they are recovered. Cash, spent on the purchase of goods, after their sale are reimbursed in full and are, in essence, advanced funds. That's why and tax code RF (Article 268) provides for a reduction in the income of a trading enterprise by the cost of goods sold. An increase in distribution costs reduces profits and, accordingly, taxes deducted to the budget. Therefore, the state regulates the composition and procedure for attributing costs to distribution costs.

Enterprises engaged in wholesale, small wholesale and retail trade form distribution costs taking into account the following features.

During the current month, the amount of distribution costs includes the expenses of the enterprise - the buyer of goods for the delivery of these goods in the event that such delivery is not included in the purchase price of goods under the terms of the contract, storage costs and other expenses of the current month associated with the acquisition and sale of goods. Unlike expenses manufacturing enterprise, the distribution costs of a trade enterprise do not include the cost of purchased goods, which is taken into account when they are sold.

Fig.2.

Accounting for distribution costs is carried out according to 14 items, the nomenclature of which is proposed guidelines on accounting. Enterprises have the right to conduct analytical accounting for an arbitrary nomenclature of expenditure items, breaking down or detailing some of them.

Among the costs of distribution, a special place is occupied by normalized costs. According to standardized costs legislative order spending limits are set. Expenses in excess of these norms are not recognized as distribution costs and are not taken into account in taxation. They are covered by net income.

Normalized expenses are: entertainment expenses, contributions for voluntary insurance and non-state pension provision, payment of lifting allowances, losses on housing and communal and social facilities, interest on loans, notary services, some advertising costs, payment of daily allowances and use of personal passenger car and etc.

Depending on the impact of changes in the volume of trade on distribution costs, they are divided into conditionally variable and conditionally fixed costs. With the growth of sales, the costs of transportation, wages, storage and processing of goods, etc. grow. Such costs are conditionally variable. And the costs of rent and depreciation of fixed assets are not very changeable and they are called, and other similar costs, conditionally fixed.

The cost of purchased goods shipped but not sold at the end of the month is not included by the taxpayer in the cost of production and sale until the moment of their sale.

Distribution costs should be distinguished between goods sold and inventory. To do this, the costs of the current month are divided into direct and indirect. When calculating direct costs, delivery costs (transport costs) are taken into account, and other costs, due to their insignificance, are not allocated. The amount of direct costs related to the balance of goods in the warehouse is determined by the average percentage for the current month, taking into account the carry-over balance at the beginning of the month in the following order:

1. The amount of direct expenses attributable to the balance of goods in the warehouse at the beginning of the month and carried out in the current month is determined.

2. The cost of goods sold in the current month and the cost of the remaining goods in the warehouse at the end of the month are determined.

3. Calculated average percentage as the ratio of the amount of direct costs (item 1) to the cost of goods (item 2).

4. The amount of direct costs related to the balance of goods in the warehouse is determined as the product of the average percentage by the value of the balance of goods at the end of the month.

Indicators of the ratio of the amount of distribution costs to the results of management reflect the share of distribution costs in these results. This is how the share of distribution costs in turnover or in gross income, i.e., in value added, is determined, and we will call them, respectively, the cost of circulation and the cost of gross income (value added).

The cost of turnover is usually called the level of distribution costs. The level of distribution costs is the percentage of the sum of distribution costs to the volume of turnover and reflects the share of current costs for the sale of goods in its sale price. Distribution cost level ( uIO) is defined as follows:

where, AND ABOUT- the amount of distribution costs;

T- turnover.

The level of distribution costs can also be determined in relation to gross income. In market conditions of management, the latter indicator takes precedence over the level of distribution costs in terms of turnover.

Profit is the net income of a trading enterprise.

There are many definitions of profit made by leading economists around the world.

For example, Seattle University professor Paul Hein (USA) put forward the following definition of profit: “Profit is a net income in excess of the usual rate of return due to available investment opportunities.” Abroad, the term “investment” is often used in determining profit. This is how the concept of future profit appeared, i.e. such profit that will be received in the future as a result of making timely investments related, for example, to the purchase of new equipment, machinery, Vehicle, with capital investments, etc., which allows you to increase the amount of fixed capital (fixed assets). Sources of investment can serve as bank loans, private capital, and the funds of some enterprises invested in the development of others. Such funds can be presented both in the form of direct loans, and in the form of acquired shares, or in the form of investments for the purpose of making a profit, etc.

Another definition of profit was put forward by P.R. Rubinfeld: “Profit is understood as the end result of the economic activity of an enterprise (firm, company, corporation, etc.). Profit maximization is a prerequisite for all firms: profit is maximized when marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost". Here the definition of profit is given in terms of marginal cost.

Firms usually solve the problem of profit maximization for long term. Profit maximization implies the task of planning profits for some period in advance, which is a rather difficult task today.

The purpose of commercial activity is to obtain the maximum possible profit. When making trade transactions for the purchase and sale of goods, it is required to calculate the expected profit.

Profit is not only a goal, but also a necessary condition for self-finance financing the enterprise, replenishing the country's budget and developing consumption. Profit is the final financial result, defined as the difference between the gross income of the enterprise and distribution costs.

where Etc - gross profit,

VD- gross income of the enterprise,

AND ABOUT- distribution costs.

This profit is also called accounting profit. The difference between gross income and economic costs (accounting and implicit) circulation is called economic profit.

Profit is measured by amount and level. The level of profit or profitability (efficiency) is defined as the percentage of the amount of profit to another quantitative indicator, on which the amount of profit itself depends. And such indicators are trade turnover, the volume of capital, fixed assets, working capital, gross income, distribution costs, wage costs, enterprise capacity (sales space), capital investments, etc.

The overall profitability of a commercial enterprise is expressed as an indicator of the profitability of trade. In foreign practice, it is also called the commercial margin.

Under market conditions, gross income largely reflects the volume of work performed by a trade enterprise, while turnover is more dependent on the level of prices and the range of goods. Therefore, profitability in terms of gross income is of no small importance.

To analyze the profitability of economic activity and the efficiency of using a particular resource, profitability indicators are used in dynamics or in comparison with another similar enterprise.

Profit from the sale of goods and services is defined as the difference between the gross income from the sale of goods without VAT and distribution costs.

Profit from the sale of fixed assets and other property represents the excess of the selling price without VAT over residual value of these funds increased by the inflation index and minus the costs of implementation.

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Profit from non-operating operations is the net result of income and expenses on these operations. They include: income received from equity participation in the activities of other enterprises, from the lease of property, dividends on shares and securities owned by the enterprise, sanctions for violation business contracts etc.

Balance sheet (gross) profit represents the amount of profit from the sale of goods, surplus fixed assets, other property and income from non-sales operations minus the costs of these operations.

Net profit- this part of the gross profit lagging behind at the disposal of the enterprise after paying income tax to the budget.

To calculate income tax, taxable income is determined. Taxable income is the gross profit reduced or increased in accordance with applicable law. So, when calculating income tax from gross profit, the following are excluded: income from equity participation in the activities of other enterprises; dividends on securities owned by the enterprise; income subject to taxation at special rates, etc.

If we talk about the main factors affecting profit, then we can say that in practice, gross (balance sheet) profit is mainly created at the expense of profit from the sale of goods, but it can be increased (decreased) by the amount of profit from non-trading activities of the enterprise, by the amount identified positive (negative) balance on non-operating transactions, by the amount of profit received from the sale of fixed assets (moreover, the profit (loss) from the sale of fixed assets is the difference between the selling (market) and their initial price or residual value, taking into account revaluations caused by inflation .

If an excess of the initial cost and incurred costs associated with the disposal of fixed assets and other property over the amount of proceeds from the sale is revealed, then the gross profit of the enterprise is reduced by the amount of this excess. If, on the contrary, the amount of proceeds exceeds the initial cost and expenses for the disposal of fixed assets and other property, gross profit is increased by this difference).

Interdependent factors as well as the main ones strongly influence the amount of profit. These factors are not accidentally given this name. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that each of them to some extent influences or is influenced by other factors from this group. Therefore, by dividing the subsystem of interdependent factors into separate elements - indicators, it is possible to identify the degree of influence of each of them on profit based on the application of methods and techniques of economic and mathematical analysis. First, the impact of each of them on the amount of profit is evaluated, and then their combined impact.

Using a complex method of analysis, it is possible to identify the following the necessary conditions for the normal functioning and development of the enterprise:

Tp > Tm > Ti > Tf > Tch,

where T is the growth rate of profit, T is the growth rate of trade turnover, T is the growth rate of distribution costs, T is the growth rate of the capital-labor ratio of workers, T is the growth rate of the number of employees.

Growth factors of this or that indicator are calculated by their successive ratio. The intensive development of a trading enterprise can be characterized not only by an increase in turnover and profits, but also by an increase in the productivity of trade workers, an increase in capital, etc.

For example, the costs of dealing with retail strongly depend on the size of wages to employees, various deductions to off-budget funds. A decrease in distribution costs entails, respectively, a decrease in wages and various kinds of deductions. This, in its own way, can increase profit margins, but at the same time, it can undermine the incentive for workers to work and greatly reduce labor productivity, which can lead to very high costs to restore the health of the staff. In foreign practice, in this regard, a system of incentives for employees is used, where, along with an increase in salaries, the so-called participation of employees in the economic activities of an enterprise is used, which implies that employees have the right to purchase shares of enterprises at preferential prices, and then can receive dividends on purchased shares .

It is assumed that the return on the increase in labor costs should grow faster than the size of its payment. The enterprise distributes this or that part of the profit not in the form of cash payments, but in the form of shares or transfers it to the bank accounts of employees, forming a credit fund, which the enterprise puts into circulation, which to some extent reduces the need for borrowed funds while reducing the cost of paying interest on bank loans.

The amount of profit in trade also depends on the volume of demand for goods and their supply. A decrease in demand for goods can lead to both a decrease in gross income from sales and a reduction in gross profit. The regulator of the ratio of supply and demand in the market are the retail prices of goods. At low prices for goods, the volume of demand for them is greater, and at high prices - less, since there are cheaper substitutes for these goods. As sales increase, the rate of profit increases, then its growth slows down, and finally it stabilizes or decreases, depending on the properties of certain groups of goods.

Thus, profit is influenced by two interdependent factors: distribution costs and sales volumes of goods. Other factors also directly affect profit and each other.

Under the distribution of profit is understood the procedure for its direction, determined by law. In conditions market economy a significant part of the profit is withdrawn in the form of taxes (38-45% of gross profit), which the state uses to replenish budget revenues.

The Law of the Russian Federation “On the Profit Tax of Enterprises and Organizations” provides for the right of enterprises to direct part of their gross profit to finance capital investments for industrial and social purposes, as well as to repay bank loans received for these purposes. This allows you to reduce the actual amount of income tax calculated without taking into account this benefit, no more than 2 times. In addition, the law allows the gross profit to cover the costs associated with the repayment of loans from commercial banks received to finance capital investments. If the enterprise uses these credits not for their intended purpose, then the profit received from their use is subject to taxation in accordance with the established procedure.

The distribution of profits is based on the observance of three basic principles:

Ensuring the material interest of employees in achieving top results at the lowest cost;

Accumulation of own capital;

Fulfillment of obligations to the state budget;

One of the directions of profit distribution is the repayment of the state target loan received from the target off-budget fund to replenish working capital, within the limits of its age. The second direction of profit distribution is deductions to the reserve fund. In Russia, the reserve fund is created and replenished from profits only in joint-stock companies and limited liability companies. No more than 50% of the amount of profit subject to taxation can be directed to the reserve fund. The funds of this fund have a designated purpose - covering unforeseen losses, compensation for risk, and other expenses arising in the course of the enterprise's business activities. The existence of a reserve fund determines the possibility of paying dividends on shares in the event of a shortage of net profit.

Abroad, the method of participation of employees of a large enterprise in its profits is widely used. For these purposes, the company creates a so-called accumulation fund, into which a certain percentage of profit before taxes is transferred. This amount is distributed among employees in proportion to their salaries, and the money is not paid immediately, but is placed in various kinds of shares. An employee of a corporation can receive them only after leaving the enterprise.

If the amounts of the authorized capital and the accumulation fund exceed the amount of profit received, then we can talk about the stability of the financial orientation of funds for the development of the enterprise. The equalization of the ratio of these amounts indicates a pre-crisis state.

IN general view the profit remaining at the disposal of the commercial enterprise is distributed among the accumulation and consumption funds. These funds differ in ownership. On the joint stock company consumption funds are owned by the labor collective of the enterprise, and accumulation funds are owned by shareholders, founders. Therefore, consumption funds cannot be attributed to the capital of an enterprise, because the difference between capital and funds lies in the fact that capital is formed as a result of the accumulation of property, and accumulation funds - as a result of the distribution of net profit.

Russian legislation grants enterprises, regardless of the organizational and legal form of ownership, the right to quickly maneuver the profits that come to their disposal after paying tax payments to the budget. The difference between the total amount of profit for all types of activities of the enterprise and its used part for the reporting period is retained earnings.

Retained earnings is an indicator that characterizes the economic growth enterprises on the basis of own funds. As part of retained earnings, one part characterizes the amount of accumulated profit, the second part is free profit, i.e. profit that received no referral. It should be noted that the profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise cannot be fully attributed to equity. In fact, all consumption funds, as well as such savings as investments in the social sphere, do not belong to equity. They do not represent the capital of the enterprise in its pure form, but in fact what the enterprise gave to the team to improve its social needs (construction of a holiday home, etc.).

According to the economic content, funds are the net profit of the reporting year or previous years, distributed among the funds for its intended use: for the acquisition new technology(accumulation fund); to events social orientation(social sphere fund); for material incentives (consumption fund) and other needs.

The Board of Founders has the right to direct the funds of the funds to cover losses, redistribute the funds of the funds between them, direct part of the funds to increase the authorized capital and finance other activities.

It must be added that all of the above (regarding the creation of funds at an enterprise) is typical for more or less large enterprises, where the distribution of profits takes place in accordance with the constituent documents for funds, which provide for the amount of deductions. The procedure for the formation and expenditure of funds is determined by the enterprise independently and is fixed in the charter and order on the accounting policy of the enterprise. This method of using profits is called the stock method. The fundless method is used in most cases by small businesses. At such enterprises, a reserve fund is usually formed, contributions to which may affect taxable profit due to possible tax benefits on these contributions. Ultimately, the goal of analyzing the distribution of profits is to establish how rationally profit is distributed and used from the standpoint of self-growth (self-sufficiency) of capital and self-financing of a trading enterprise.

One of the main indicators of the effectiveness of the trading activity of the enterprise - profitability , which allows you to accurately assess the level of development of a trading enterprise, both as a whole and from various angles.

Profitability is defined as the ratio of profit to one of the performance indicators of a trading enterprise. When calculating profitability, various profit indicators are used. Profitability indicators make it possible to identify not only the overall performance of a trading enterprise, but also to evaluate various aspects of its activities.

There are a great many indicators of profitability, the main of which is the indicator of the overall economic profitability of a trading enterprise. It is calculated by the formula:

R \u003d P / T * 100,

where P is the total economic profitability of the economic activity of a trading enterprise;

P - the amount of profit (gross or net); T - the volume of trade (excluding VAT). The next indicator is an indicator that characterizes the effectiveness of the use of equity capital. It is called the return on equity indicator, which is calculated by the formula:

R \u003d P / K * 100,

where P - the amount of profit of a trading enterprise,

K - the average value of equity capital.

This indicator is important for the shareholders of a commercial enterprise. It serves as a criterion for assessing the level of quotation of shares of a joint-stock trading enterprise on the stock exchange. This indicator allows investors to evaluate the potential income from investing in stocks and other securities. There is also an indicator of profitability of all capital, which is found by dividing the amount of profit by the amount of all capital. Profitability indicator of the main production means(funds) of the enterprise is calculated according to the following formula:

R \u003d P / OF * 100,

where P is the amount of profit;

OF - the average cost of fixed assets;

Similarly, the indicator of profitability of tangible working capital is calculated, only instead of the indicator of the average cost of fixed assets, the indicator of the average cost of tangible circulating assets is used. These two indicators are often combined and calculate one indicator of return on fixed assets:

R \u003d (P / (OF + MS) * 100),

where MC is the average cost of material working capital.

If a trading enterprise leases premises or leases premises, then it is advisable to calculate the average cost of fixed assets taking into account the leased and leased fixed assets. In this case, the average value of fixed assets is determined by subtracting from the total cost of own and leased fixed assets the value of leased fixed assets.

Along with the main indicators of profitability, a large number of private indicators are used, such as: profitability of the effectiveness of current costs (the ratio of profit to distribution costs), profitability of living labor costs (the ratio of profit to wages), profitability of working capital (the ratio of profit to the average value of working capital) , the profitability of the efficiency of the use of labor force (the ratio of profit to the number of workers employed at the enterprise), the profitability of the efficiency of the use of retail space, the profitability of the efficiency of the use of fixed capital, etc.

Private indicators of profitability characterize the effectiveness of the use of certain types of resources by trading enterprises. Profitability is one of the most important indicators of the economic activity of a trading enterprise, therefore, in the analysis, along with profitability indicators, their dynamics is used.

It is probably clear to all managers from "little to big" that control over the activities of their own and their subordinates is one of the elements of management. The second is also most likely understandable: you can control the execution of the result and the process of work. Which of the control elements is more important?
Result control - tracking the final indicators in numbers for a certain date, and process control helps to understand before this deadline whether it is possible to achieve the final indicators and it is not time to take some unplanned measures to achieve the result.

The head of the sales department, who considers the position of his brand on the market to be unshakable, trade relations to be impeccable, competitors to be complete slobs, and salespeople (salespeople) to be real managers, who not only build themselves, but also correct their own task, may well limit themselves to monitoring the final indicators, so amazingly constructed process.
What needs to be controlled based on the results of the built sales process:

• coefficient Revenue actual/forecast;
• factor Accounts receivable actual/forecast;
• Revenue/Receivable ratio;
• coefficient Revenue / Balance in the warehouse (textbook controlled value for remote warehouses);

If you have a "plan / fact", and with the above described about salespeople and competitors, "everything is fine", from the bottom of my heart I "congratulate" those few who are sincerely mistaken in this. For the rest, who say "everything is fine" in this to themselves and their superiors, and for those who understand that this situation is from the "fantastic" section, I want to say that the opinion of managers who believe that their main role is set goals and objectives for your subordinates and deadlines for their implementation. At the same time, it is sufficient to check the fulfillment of the result by the end of the appointed period.

If the role of the head of the sales department is reduced to controlling the results, then everything will inevitably come down to:

• to running around at the end of the month: "There are 10 days left until the end of the month, we urgently need to ship X products to ...";
• managing the goal to turn into psychological pressure sales staff, and heart attacks (strokes);
• over time, everything will lead to distrust of salespeople to the manager, ignoring orders, conflicts with management.

Does it sound like the real thing, or maybe it's already familiar? This is due to the fact that the head of the sales department does not pay his attention to the process, and his zero role in the possibility of adjusting the process in order to achieve certain marketing targets.

Why is it that in reputable distribution organizations and their sales departments there is constantly control not only of the result, but also control over the current process? These companies are at the stage of qualitative development of distribution, when the company concentrates its thinking on the process in order to manage (!) the goal. With regular monitoring of the process of fulfilling the tasks set, the organization manages customers and can build clear marketing steps, sales and transport logistics. Why is that? When understanding before the end of the estimated period the possibility of underfulfillment of plans and forecast indicators, the attention of the manager, and hence the salespeople, is concentrated on the problem, and the goals for the period change, which helps to achieve the intended result, and not state the impossibility of achieving closer to the end of the deadline.

What needs to be permanently controlled in the trading process:

• cumulative revenue as of the date of control and its correlation with forecast indicators;
• shipments on the current date, with an understanding of the possibility of closing transactions before the end of the billing period;
• coefficient Revenue / balance in stock (textbook controlled value for remote warehouses);
• number of shipped customers/total number of customers in the database;
• number of new clients / total number of clients in the database;
• average account (check, purchase) (for trade subdivisions with regular sales - a "litmus test" of possible problems);
• average invoice / average time of shipment (for distribution logistics, some indicator of possible current problems)

So far, I have not deliberately described why it is necessary to monitor each of the indicators in the current mode, and I have not given a number of other indicators. If you want comments, or clarifications to what has been said - register and welcome to the forum.